And That’s a Fact: A Rhetorical Perspective on the Role of Fact-Checkers

References

• Agadjanian, A., N. Bakhru, V. Chi, D. Greenberg, B. Hollander, A. Hurt, J. Kind, et al. 2019. “Counting the Pinocchios: The Effect of Summary Fact-Checking Data on Perceived Accuracy and Favorability of Politicians.” Research & Politics 6 (3): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168019870351.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amazeen, M. A. 2013. Making a Difference? A Critical Assessment of Fact-Checking in 2012. Wasington, D.C.: New America Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Amazeen, M. A. 2015a. “Developing an Ad-Reporting Typology: A Network Analysis Approach to Newspaper and Fact-Checker Coverage of the 2008 Presidential Election.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 92 (3): 617–641. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699015574099.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amazeen, M. A. 2015b. “Revisiting the Epistemology of Fact-Checking.” Critical Review (New York, N.Y.) 27 (1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2014.993890.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amazeen, M. A. 2016. “Checking the Fact-Checkers in 2008: Predicting Political Ad Scrutiny and Assessing Consistency.” Journal of Political Marketing 15 (4): 433–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377857.2014.959691.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amazeen, M. A. 2020. “Journalistic Interventions: The Structural Factors Affecting the Global Emergence of Fact-Checking.” Journalism 21 (1): 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884917730217.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ananny, M. 2020. “Making up Political People: How Social Media Create the Ideals, Definitions, and Probabilities of Political Speech.” Geo. L. Tech. Rev. 4: 351–366. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/7pd62.
   Google Scholar
• Aristotle. 2007. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse (2nd ed.) (G. A. Kennedy, Trans. with introduction, notes, and appendices). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bengtsson, M., and L. Villadsen. 2024. “It’s Not (only) about Getting the Last Word: Rhetorical Norms of Public Argumentation and the Responsibility to Keep the Conversation Going.” Argumentation 38: 41–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10503-023-09622-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockriede, W., and D. Ehninger. 1960. “Toulmin on Argument: An Interpretation and Application.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 46 (1): 44–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335636009382390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burel, G., T. Farrell, M. Mensio, P. Khare, and H. Alani. 2020. “Co-spread of Misinformation and Fact-Checking Content During the Covid-19 Pandemic.” In Social Informatics, edited by S. Aref, K. Bontcheva, M. Braghieri, F. Dignum, F. Giannotti, F. Grisolia, and D. Pedreschi, Vol. 12467, 28–42. City: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60975-7_3.
   Google Scholar
• Ceccarelli, L. 2020. “Language and Science from a Rhetorical Perspective.” In The Routledge Handbook of Language and Science, edited by D. Gruber and L. C. Olman, 9–20. Abingdon, New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Clayton, K., S. Blair, J. A. Busam, S. Forstner, J. Glance, G. Green, A. Kawata, et al. 2020. “Real Solutions for Fake News? Measuring the Effectiveness of General Warnings and Fact-Check Tags in Reducing Belief in False Stories on Social Media.” Political Behavior 42 (4): 1073–1095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-019-09533-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloud, D. L. 2018. Reality Bites: Rhetoric and the Circulation of Truth Claims in U.S. Political Culture. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Detektor DR (Director). 2018a, January 18. Politidirektør forskønner Vollsmose. In Detektor. DR Danish Broadcasting Corporation. https://player.fm/series/series-1687244/detektor-2018-01-18
   Google Scholar
• Detektor DR (Director). 2018b, March 1. 11 somaliske kvinder fra Vollsmose. In Detektor. DR Danish Broadcasting Corporation. https://player.fm/series/series-1687244/detektor-2018-03-01
   Google Scholar
• Ehninger, D., and W. Brockriede. 1963. Decision by Debate. New York, Toronto: Dodd, Mead & Co.
   Google Scholar
• Eide, M. 2012. “Faktasjekk som journalistisk nyorientering.” In Nytt på nett og brett. Journalistikk i forandring, edited by M. Eide, L. O. Larsen, and H. Sjøvaag, 176–193. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
   Google Scholar
• Ettema, J. S., and T. L. Glasser. 1998. Custodians of Conscience: Investigative Journalism and Public Virtue. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fahnestock, J. 1999. Rhetorical Figures in Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Frank, D. A., and M. K. Bolduc. 2003. “Chaïm Perelman’s ‘First Philosophies and Regressive Philosophy’: Commentary and Translation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric 36 (3): 177–206. https://doi.org/10.1353/par.2003.0026.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridkin, K., P. J. Kenney, and A. Wintersieck. 2015. “Liar, Liar, Pants on Fire: How Fact-Checking Influences Citizens’ Reactions to Negative Advertising.” Political Communication 32 (1): 127–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2014.914613.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrett, R. K., E. C. Nisbet, and E. K. Lynch. 2013. “Undermining the Corrective Effects of Media-Based Political Fact Checking? The Role of Contextual Cues and Naïve Theory.” Journal of Communication 63 (4): 617–637. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12038.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottfried, J. A., B. W. Hardy, K. M. Winneg, and K. H. Jamieson. 2013. “Did Fact Checking Matter in the 2012 Presidential Campaign?” American Behavioral Scientist 57 (11): 1558–1567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213489012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graves, L. 2016. Deciding What’s True: The Rise of Political Fact-Checking in American Journalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Graves, L. 2017. “Anatomy of a Fact Check: Objective Practice and the Contested Epistemology of Fact Checking.” Communication, Culture & Critique 10 (3): 518–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graves, L. 2018. “Boundaries Not Drawn: Mapping the institutional roots of the global fact-checking movement.” Journalism Studies 19 (5): 613–631. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2016.1196602.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graves, L., and M. A. Amazeen. 2019. Fact-Checking as Idea and Practice in Journalism. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. Retrieved 23 Apr. 2024, from https://oxfordre.com/communication/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-808.
   Google Scholar
• Graves, L., V. Bélair-Gagnon, and R. Larsen. 2023. “From Public Reason to Public Health: Professional Implications of the ‘Debunking Turn’ in the Global Fact-Checking Field.” Digital Journalism, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2023.2218454.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graves, L., and F. Cherubini. 2016. The Rise of Fact-Checking Sites in Europe.
   Google Scholar
• Graves, L., and T. Glaisyer. 2012. The Fact-Checking Universe in Spring 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Graves, L., and M. Konieczna. 2015. “Sharing the News: Journalistic Collaboration as Field Repair.” International Journal of Communication (19328036) 9: 1966–1984.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graves, L., and A. Mantzarlis. 2020. “Amid Political Spin and Online Misinformation, Fact Checking Adapts.” The Political Quarterly 91 (3): 585–591. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12896.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haigh, M., T. Haigh, and N. I. Kozak. 2018. “Stopping Fake News.” Journalism Studies 19 (14): 2062–2087. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2017.1316681.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M. 2022. “Separating Truth from Lies: Comparing the Effects of News Media Literacy Interventions and Fact-Checkers in Response to Political Misinformation in the US and Netherlands.” Information, Communication & Society 25 (1): 110–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1764603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T.. 2017. Professional Identity and Roles of Journalists. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. Retrieved 23 Apr. 2024, from https://oxfordre.com/communication/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-95.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, R. A. 2017. Landmark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Issues and Methods. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Humprecht, E. 2020. “How Do They Debunk “Fake News”? A Cross-National Comparison of Transparency in Fact Checks.” Digital Journalism 8 (3): 310–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.1691031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarman, J. W. 2014. “The Failure of Fact-Checking.” In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of the International Society for the Study of Argumentation, edited by B. Garssen, D. Gooden, G. Mitchell, and A. Snoeck Henkemans. Amsterdam: Rozenberg Publishers. https://rozenbergquarterly.com/issa-proceedings-2014-the-failure-of-fact-checking/.
   Google Scholar
• Jarman, J. W. 2016. “Influence of Political Affiliation and Criticism on the Effectiveness of Political Fact-Checking.” Communication Research Reports 33 (1): 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2015.1117436.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasinski, J. 2001a. “Argument.” In Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies, edited by J. Jasinski, 25–55. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452233222.
   Google Scholar
• Jasinski, J. 2001b. “Fallacy.” In Sourcebook on Rhetoric: Key Concepts in Contemporary Rhetorical Studies, edited by J. Jasinski, 241–245. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452233222.
   Google Scholar
• Jennings, J., and N. J. Stroud. 2023. “Asymmetric Adjustment: Partisanship and Correcting Misinformation on Facebook.” New Media & Society 25 (7): 1501–1521. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448211021720.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jørgensen, C. 2013. “Rhetoric, Dialectic and Logic: The Triad de-Compartmentalized.” In Virtues of Argumentation. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of the Ontario Society for the Study of Argumentation (OSSA), edited by D. Mohammed and M. Lewiński, 1–9. Windsor: Leddy Library, University of Windsor. 22–26 May 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Kock, C.. 2007. “Multiple Warrants in Practical Reasoning.” In In Arguing on the Toulmin Model: New Essays in Argument Analysis and Evaluation, edited by D. Hitchcock and B. Verheij, 247–259. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4938-5_16.
   Google Scholar
• Latour, B., and S. Woolgar. 1986. Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lazer, D. M. J., M. A. Baum, Y. Benkler, A. J. Berinsky, K. M. Greenhill, F. Menczer, M. J. Metzger, et al. 2018. “The Science of Fake News.” Science 359 (6380): 1094–1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., U. K. H. Ecker, C. M. Seifert, N. Schwarz, and J. Cook. 2012. “Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 13 (3): 106–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, C. 2018. “Checking how Fact-Checkers Check.” Research & Politics 5 (3), https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168018786848.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowrey, W. 2017. “The Emergence and Development of News Fact-checking Sites.” Journalism Studies 18 (3): 376–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2015.1052537.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marietta, M., D. C. Barker, and T. Bowser. 2015. “Fact-Checking Polarized Politics: Does the Fact-Check Industry Provide Consistent Guidance on Disputed Realities?” The Forum 13 (4): 577–596. https://doi.org/10.1515/for-2015-0040.
   Google Scholar
• Maruyama, G., & Van Boekel, M. 2014. Action Research. 9780199828340–0149 [dataset]. https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0149
   Google Scholar
• McCloskey, D. N. 1985. The Rhetoric of Economics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mellado, C. 2015. “Professional Roles in News Content: Six Dimensions of Journalistic Role Performance.” Journalism Studies (London, England) 16 (4): 596–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2014.922276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellado, C. 2019. “Journalists’ Professional Roles and Role Performance.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.832.
   Google Scholar
• Mellado, C., L. Hellmueller, and W. Donsbach. 2016. “Journalistic Role Performance: A New Research Agenda in a Digital and Global Media Environment.” In Journalistic Role Performance: Concepts, Contexts, and Methods, edited by C. Mellado, L. Hellmueller, and W. Donsbach, 1–18. City: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315768854.
   Google Scholar
• Nieminen, S., and L. Rapeli. 2019. “Fighting Misperceptions and Doubting Journalists’ Objectivity: A Review of Fact-Checking Literature.” Political Studies Review 17 (3): 296–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478929918786852.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B. 2020. “Facts and Myths about Misperceptions.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 34 (3): 220–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.34.3.220.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B., and J. Reifler. 2010. “When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions.” Political Behavior 32 (2): 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Örnebring, H. 2016. “Epistemologies and Professional Roles.” In Journalistic Role Performance: Concepts, Contexts, and Methods, edited by C. Mellado, W. Donsbach, and L. Hellmueller, 83–95. Abingdon, London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Perelman, C. 1982. The Realm of Rhetoric. Translated by William Kluback. Introduction by Carroll C. Arnold. Notre Dame, London: University of Notre Dame Press.
   Google Scholar
• Plug, H. J., and J. H. M. Wagemans. 2020. “From Fact-Checking to Rhetoric-Checking: Extending Methods for Evaluating Populist Discourse.” In Vox Populi: Rhetoric of Populism, edited by I. van der Geest, H. Jansen, and B. van Klink, 236–252. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
   Google Scholar
• Porter, E., and T. J. Wood. 2021. “The Global Effectiveness of Fact-Checking: Evidence from Simultaneous Experiments in Argentina, Nigeria, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (37): 1. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2104235118.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regeringen. 2017. Ghettolisten. Regeringen.dk. https://www.regeringen.dk/nyheder/2017/ghetto-listen-2017-to-nye-omraader-tilfoejet-fem-fjernet/ghettolisten-definition-af-en-ghetto/.
   Google Scholar
• Steensen, S., V. Belair-Gagnon, L. Graves, B. Kalsnes, and O. Westlund. 2022. “Journalism and Source Criticism. Revised Approaches to Assessing Truth-Claims.” Journalism Studies 23 (16): 2119–2137. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2022.2140446.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stencel, M., E. Ryan, and J. Luther. 2023, June 21. Misinformation Spreads, but Fact-checking has Leveled Off. Duke Reporters’ Lab. https://reporterslab.org/category/fact-checking/.
   Google Scholar
• Thorson, E. 2016. “Belief Echoes: The Persistent Effects of Corrected Misinformation.” Political Communication 33 (3): 460–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toulmin, S. E. 1958. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Uscinski, J. E. 2015. “The Epistemology of Fact Checking (Is Still Naìve): Rejoinder to Amazeen.” Critical Review 27 (2): 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2015.1055892.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uscinski, J. E., and R. W. Butler. 2013. “The Epistemology of Fact Checking.” Critical Review 25 (2): 162–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2013.843872.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valaskivi, K., and D. G. Robertson. 2022. “Introduction: Epistemic Contestations in the Hybrid Media Environment.” Popular Communication 20 (3): 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/15405702.2022.2057998.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vargo, C. J., L. Guo, and M. A. Amazeen. 2018. “The Agenda-Setting Power of Fake News: A big Data Analysis of the Online Media Landscape from 2014 to 2016.” New Media & Society 20 (5): 2028–2049. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817712086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinhas, O., and M. Bastos. 2022. “Fact-Checking Misinformation: Eight Notes on Consensus Reality.” Journalism Studies 23 (4): 448–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2022.2031259.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagemans, A., and T. Witschge. 2019. “Examining Innovation as Process: Action Research in Journalism Studies.” Convergence: The International Journal of Research Into New Media Technologies 25 (2): 209–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856519834880.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter, N., J. Cohen, R. L. Holbert, and Y. Morag. 2020. “Fact-checking: A Meta-Analysis of What Works and for Whom.” Political Communication 37 (3): 350–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1668894.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter, N., and N. A. Salovich. 2021. “Unchecked vs. Uncheckable: How Opinion-Based Claims Can Impede Corrections of Misinformation.” Mass Communication and Society 24 (4): 500–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1864406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton, D. 1997. Appeal to Expert Opinion: Arguments from Authority. Philadelphia: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Weeks, B. E. 2015. “Emotions, Partisanship, and Misperceptions: How Anger and Anxiety Moderate the Effect of Partisan Bias on Susceptibility to Political Misinformation.” Journal of Communication 65 (4): 699–719. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12164.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, T., and E. Porter. 2019. “The Elusive Backfire Effect: Mass Attitudes’ Steadfast Factual Adherence.” Political Behavior 41 (1): 135–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarrow, D. 2021. “From Fact-checking to Value-checking: Normative Reasoning in the New Public Sphere.” The Political Quarterly 92 (4): 621–628. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12999.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar