Epidemiology of free-living amoebae in the Philippines: a review and update

References

• Lasjerdi Z, Niyyati M, Haghighi A, et al. Potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae isolated from hospital wards with immunodeficient patients in Tehran, Iran. Parasitol Res. 2011;109(3):575–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trabelsi H, Dendana F, Sellami A, et al. Pathogenic free-living amoebae: epidemiology and clinical review. Pathol Biol. 2012;60(6):399–405.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cruz A, and Rivera W. Genotype analysis of Acanthamoeba isolated from human nasal swabs in the Philippines. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2014;7:S74–S78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balczun C, Scheid PL. Free-living amoebae as hosts for and vectors of intracellular microorganisms with public health significance. Virus. 2017;9(4):65.
   Google Scholar
• Gabriel S, Khan NA, Siddiqui R. Occurrence of free-living amoebae (Acanthamoeba, Balamuthia, Naegleria) in water samples in Peninsular Malaysia. J Water Health. 2019;17(1):160–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabros MRL, Diesta XRS, Oronan JA, et al. Current report on the prevalence of free-living amoebae (FLA) in natural hot springs: a systematic review. J Water Health. 2021;19(4):563–574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaerewijck MJ, Baré J, Lambrecht E, et al. Interactions of foodborne pathogens with free-living protozoa: potential consequences for food safety. Compre Rev Food Sci Food Safe. 2014;13(5):924–944.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker J, Lambert P, Brown M. Influence of intra-amoebic and other growth conditions on the surface properties of Legionella pneumophila. Infect Immun. 1992;61(8):3503–3510.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan N. Acanthamoeba, biology and pathogenesis. Norfolk: Caister Academic Press; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Greub G, Raoult D. Microorganisms resistant to free-living amoebae. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17(2):413–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheid P. Free-living amoebae as human parasites and hosts for pathogenic microorganisms. Proceedings. 2018;2(11):692.
   Google Scholar
• Gaëlle Reteno D, Benamar S, Khalil JB, et al. Faustovirus, an asfarvirus-related new lineage of giant viruses infecting amoebae. J Virol. 2015;89(13):6585–6594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maisonneuve E, Cateau E, and Kaaki S, et al. Vermamoeba vermiformis – Aspergillus fumigatus relationships and comparison with other phagocytic cells. Parasitol Res. 2016;115(11):4097–4105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winiecka‐Krusnell J, Dellacasa‐Lindberg I, Dubey JP, et al. Toxoplasma gondii: uptake and survival of oocysts in free living amoebae. Exp Parasitol. 2009;121:124–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheid P, Schwarzenberger R. Free living amoebae as vectors of cryptosporidia. Parasitol Res. 2011;109:499–504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Guidelines for safe recreationalWater. Geneva: Switzerland: Coastal andFresh Waters WHO; 2003. p. 1.
   Google Scholar
• Martinez A, Visvesvara G. Free-living, amphizoic and opportunistic amebas. Brain Pathol. 1997;7(1):583–598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dando SJ, Mackay-Sim A, Norton R, et al. Pathogens penetrating the central nervous system: infection pathways and the cellular and molecular mechanisms of invasion. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014;27(4):691–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grace E, Asbill S, Virga K. Naegleria fowleri: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment options. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015;59(11):6677–6681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salameh A, Bello N, Becker J, et al. Fatal granulomatous amoebic encephalitis caused by acanthamoeba in a patient with kidney transplant: a case report. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2:3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qvarnstrom Y, Silva AD, Schuster F, et al. Molecular confirmation of Sappinia pedata as a causative agent of amoebic encephalitis. J Infect Dis. 2009;199(8):1139–1142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matanock A, Mehal JM, Liu L, et al. Estimation of undiagnosed Naegleria fowleri primary amebic meningoencephalitis, United States. Emerging Infect Dis. 2018;24(1):162–164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma P, Visvesvara GS, Martinez AJ, et al. Naegleria and Acanthamoeba infections: review. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12(3):490–513.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marciano-Cabral F, Cabral G. Acanthamoeba spp. as agents of disease in humans. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2003;16(2):273–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paltiel M, Powell E, Lynch J, et al. Disseminated cutaneous acanthamebiasis: a case report and review of the literature. Cutis. 2004;73(4):241–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walia R, Montoya JG, Visvesvara GC, et al. A case of successful treatment of cutaneous Acanthamoeba infection in a lung transplant recipient. Transpl Infect Dis. 2007;9(1):51–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison AO, Morris R, Shannon A, et al. Disseminated Acanthamoeba infection presenting with cutaneous lesions in an immunocompromised patient: a case report. Am J of Clin Pathol. 2016;145(2):266–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocha-Azevedo B, Tanowitz HB, and Marciano-Cabral F. Diagnosis of infections caused by pathogenic free-living amoebae. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2009;2009:251406 doi:10.1155/2009/251406.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Król-Turmińska K, Olender A. Human infections caused by free-living amoebae. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2017;24(2):254–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews G. Resolving the water pollution crisis in the Philippines: the implications of water pollution on public health and the economy. Pepperdine Policy Rev. 2018;10:2.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed SA, Flórez MG, Karanis P. The impact of water crises and climate changes on the transmission of protozoan parasites in Africa. Pathog Glob Health. 2018;112(6):281–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semenza JC. Cascading risks of waterborne diseases from climate change. Nat Immunol. 2020;21(5):484–487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagmay JP, Matias RR, Natividad FF, et al. Cytopathogenicity of Acanthamoeba isolates on rat glial C6 cell line. Southeast Asian. J Trop Med Public Health. 1999;30(4):670–677.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Matias RR, Enriquez GL, and Natividad FF. Cell biology of the Philippine amoeboflagellate, Naegleria philippinensis. Trans Nat Acad Sci Tech. 1991;13:439–444.
   Google Scholar
• Agahan ALD, Lim RBS, Valenton MJ. Successful treatment of Acanthamoeba keratitis without anti-amoebic agents. Ann Acad Med Singap. 2009;38:175–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buerano CC, Trinidad AD, Fajardo LSN, et al. Isolation of Acanthamoeba genotype T4 from a non-contact lens wearer from the Philippines. Trop Med Health. 2014;42(4):145–147.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fontanilla IKC, Matias RH, Enriquez GL. Morphological and physiological characteristics of Philippine Naegleria isolates. Phil J Sci. 2001;130(2):103–109.
   Google Scholar
• Onichandran S, Kumar T, Salibay CC, et al. Waterborne parasites: a current status from the Philippines. Parasit Vectors. 2014;7:244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milanez G, Masangkay F, Hapan MF, et al. Detection of Acanthamoeba spp. in two major water reservoirs in the Philippines. J Water Health. 2020;18(2):118–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milanez GD, Masangkay FR, and Scheid P, et al. Acanthamoeba species isolated from Philippine freshwater systems: epidemiological and molecular aspects. Parasitol Res. 2020;119:3755–3761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagosojos B, Masangkay F, Fernandez J, et al. Molecular identification of Acanthamoeba sp. in Lake Buhi, Philippines. Ann Parasitol. 2020;66(1):111–114.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ballares L, Masangkay F, Dionisio J, et al. Molecular detection of Acanthamoeba spp. in seven crater lakes of Laguna, Philippines. J Water Health. 2020;18(5):776–784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milanez G, Masangkay F, Thomas R, et al. Molecular identification of Vermamoeba vermiformis from freshwater fish in lake Taal, Philippines. Exp Parasitol. 2017;183:201–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milanez GD, Masangkay FR, Somsak V, et al. Occurrence and the first report of Naegleria australiensis presence in a major lake in the Philippines. J Water Health. 2019;17(4):647–653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belizario VY, De Leon WU, Lumampao YF, et al. Sentinel surveillance of soil-transmitted helminthiasis in selected local government units in the Philippines. Asia Pac J Public Health. 2009;21(1):26–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonardo L, Rivera P, and Saniel O, et al. A national baseline prevalence survey of schistosomiasis in the Philippines using stratified two-step systematic cluster sampling design. J Trop Med. 2012;2012:936128.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Capewell LG, Harris AM, Yoder JS, et al. Diagnosis, clinical course, and treatment of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis in the United States, 1937–2013. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2014;4(4):68–75.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simeon EC, Natividad FF, Enriquez GL. The pathogenicity of a Philippine isolate of Naegleria sp. in mice: effects of dose levels and routes of infection. Southeast Asian. J Trop Med Public Health. 1990;21:598–606.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Jonckheere JF. Occurrence of Naegleria and Acanthamoeba in aquaria. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1979;38(38):590–593.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franke ED, Mackiewicz JS. Isolation of Acanthamoeba and Naegleria from intestinal content of freshwater fishes and their potential pathogenicity. J Parasitol. 1982;68:164–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dykova I, Machackova B, Peckova H. Amoebae isolated from organs of farmed tilapias Oreochromis niloticus. F Parasitol. 1997;44(2):81–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laoprasert T, Nualchan T, Chinabut S, et al. Amoebae isolated from fish and rearing water at Oscar asronatus ocellatus farm. Aquacult Sci. 2009;57:265–270.
   Google Scholar
• Masangkay FR, Milanez GD, Chua NER, et al. Waterborne coccidians in Philippine water sheds: a national inceptive study. Asian J Biol Life Sci. 2016;5:112–119.
   Google Scholar
• Masangkay FR, Milanez GD, and Somsak V, et al. Multi-spatial contamination of environmental aquatic matrices with Cryptosporidium: a climate, health, and regulatory framework for the Philippines. Environ Sci Eur. 2020;32(32):121.
   Google Scholar
• Masangkay FR, Milanez GD, Tsiami A, et al. Waterborne protozoan pathogens in environmental aquatic biofilms: implications for water quality assessment strategies. Environ Poll. 2020;259:113903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dela Peña LBRO, Vejano MRA, and Rivera WL. Molecular surveillance of Cryptosporidium spp. for microbial source tracking of fecal contamination in laguna lake, Philippines. J Water Health. 2021;19(3):534–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Jonckheere JF, Brown S, and Dobson PJ, et al. The amoeba to flagellate transformation test is not reliable for the diagnosis of the genus Naegleria. Description of three new Naegleria spp. Protist. 2001;152(152):115–121.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mahmoudi MR, Zebardast N, Masangkay FR, et al. Detection of potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae from the caspian sea and hospital ward dust of teaching hospitals in Guilan, Iran. J Water Health. 2021;19(2):278–287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saberi R, Fakhar M, Makhlough A, et al. First evidence for colonizing of Acanthamoeba T4 genotype in urinary tracts of patients with recurrent urinary tract infections. Acta Parasitol. 2021;66(3):932–937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerrero III RD. Philippine lakes: status and strategies for sustainable development. Trans Nat Acad Sci Tech. 1999;21:278–286.
   Google Scholar
• Ashbolt NJ. Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes in developing regions. Toxicol. 2004;198:229–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dela Cruz RZ, Ortega-Dela Cruz RA. Management of public healthcare facilities in the Philippines: issues and concerns. British J Health Man. 2019;25:10.
   Google Scholar
• Matanock A, Mehal J, Liu L, et al. Estimation of undiagnosed Naegleria fowleri primary amebic meningoencephalitis, United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 2018;24(1):162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke DW, Niederkorn JY. The immunobiology of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Microbes Infect. 2006;8:1400–1405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammersmith KM. (2006). Diagnosis and management of Acanthamoeba keratitis. Curr Opin Ophthal. 2006;17(4):327–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe DK, Vodkin MH, Novak RJ, et al. Identification of two genetic markers that distinguish pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of Acanthamoeba spp. Parasitol Res. 1997;83:345–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delafont V, Rodier M, Maisonneuve E, et al. Vermamoeba vermiformis: a free living amoeba of interest. Microb Ecol. 2018;76:991–1001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masangkay F, Milanez G, and Karanis P, et al. Vermamoeba vermiformis – global trend and future perspective. Encycl Environ Health. 2019;2019:356–366.
   Google Scholar
• Putaprontip C, Kuamsab N, Nuprasert W, et al. Analysis of Acanthamoeba genotypes from public freshwater sources in Thailand reveals a new genotype, T23 Acanthamoeba bangkokensis sp. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):17290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Joncheere JF. Molecular identification of free-living amoebae of the Vahlkampfiidae and Acanthamoebidae isolated in Arizona (USA). Eur J Protistol. 2007;43:9–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin H, Borlee GI, Wheat WH, et al. Busting biofilms: free-living amoebae disrupt preformed methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Mycobacterium bovis biofilms. Microbiol (Reading). 2020;166:695–706.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomes TS, Vaccaro L, Magnet A, et al. Presence and interaction of free-living amoebae and amoeba-resisting bacteria in water from drinking water treatment plants. Sci Total Environ. 2020;719:137080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damhorst GL, Watts A, and Hernandez-Romieu A, et al. Acanthamoeba castellanii encephalitis in a patient with AIDS: a case report and literature review. Lancet Infect Dis 2021;22:2021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carag HM, and Buot IE Jr. A checklist of the orders and families of medicinal plants in the Philippines. Techn J Philippine Ecosys Nat Resources. 2017;27(1&2):40–49.
   Google Scholar
• Paller VGV, Magcale-Macandog D, de Chavez ERC, et al. The seven lakes of San Pablo: assessment and monitoring strategies toward sustainable lake ecosystems. Phil Sci Letters. 2021;14(1):158–179.
   Google Scholar
• Argayosa AM. Lectins and lectin receptors from Acanthamoeba sp. Trans Nat Acad Sci. 1993;15:143–151.
   Google Scholar
• Rivera WL, and Adao DEV. Identification of the 18S-ribosomal-DNA genotypes of Acanthamoeba isolates from the Philippines. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2008;102(8):671–677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabriel AA, Panaligan DC. Heat and chlorine resistance of a soil Acanthamoeba sp. cysts in water. J App Microbiol. 2020;129(2):453–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yagita K, Matias RR, Yasuda T, et al. Acanthamoeba sp. from the Philippines: electron microscopy studies on naturally occurring bacterial symbionts. Parasitol Res. 1995;81:98–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera WL, Adao DEV. 18S ribosomal DNA genotypes of Acanthamoeba species isolated from contact lens cases in the Philippines. Parasitol Res. 2009;105(4):1119–1124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar