Is shadow education a myth? How schools affect private tutoring in China

References

• Allen, Joseph, Anne Gregory, Amori Mikami, Janetta Lun, Bridget Hamre, and Robert Pianta. 2013. “Observations of Effective Teacher-Student Interactions in Secondary School Classrooms: Predicting Student Achievement with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System-Secondary.” School Psychology Review 42 (1): 76–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2013.12087492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Addi-Raccah, Audrey, and Oshra Dana. 2015. “Private Tutoring Intensity in Schools: A Comparison between High and Low Socio-Economic Schools.” International Studies in Sociology of Education 25 (3): 183–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/09620214.2015.1069719
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawrot, Anna. 2022. “Do School-Related Factors Affect Private Tutoring Attendance? Predictors of Private Tutoring in Maths and German among German Tenth-Graders.” Research Papers in Education 39 (1): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2022.2089209
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, David P. 2009. “The Educational Transformation of Work: Towards a New Synthesis.” Journal of Education and Work 22 (3): 163–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080902957822
   Google Scholar
• Baker, David, and GeraldK. LeTendre. 2005. National Difference, Global Similarities: World Culture and the Future of Schooling. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford.
   Google Scholar
• Barg, Katherin. 2019. “Why Are Middle-Class Parents More Involved in School than Working-Class Parents?” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 59:14–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2018.12.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bianchi, Suzanne M, P. John, and MelissaA. Robinson. 2006. The Changing Rhythms of American Family Life. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Bidwell, Charles E. 2013. “The School as a Formal Organization.” In Handbook of Organizations (RLE: Organizations), 972–1022. Boca Raton, FL: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bodovski, Katerina. 2010. “Parental Practices and Educational Achievement: Social Class, Race, and Habitus.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 31 (2): 139–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690903539024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boudon, Raymond. 1974. Education, Opportunity, and Social Inequality: Changing Prospects in Western Society. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Bourdieu, Pierre. 1973. Cultural Reproduction and Social Reproduction. London: Tavistock.
   Google Scholar
• Bowles, Samuel, and Herbert Gintis. 1976. Schooling in Capitalist America. New York: Basic.
   Google Scholar
• Bray, Mark. 1999. “The Shadow Education System: Private Tutoring and Its Implications for Planners.” In No.61 Fundamentals of Educational Planning, Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
   Google Scholar
• Bray, Mark. 2011. The Challenge of Shadow Education: Private Tutoring and Its Implications for Policymakers in the European Union.” Luxembourg: European Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Bray, Mark. 2021. “Shadow Education in Europe: Growing Prevalence, Underlying Forces, and Policy Implications.” ECNU Review of Education 4 (3): 442–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531119890142
   Google Scholar
• Bray, Mark, and Chad Lykins. 2012. Shadow Education: Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policymakers in Asia. No. 9. Mandaluyong: Asian Development Bank. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-012-9324-2
   Google Scholar
• Buchmann, Claudia, Dennis J. Condron, and Vincent J. Roscigno. 2010. “Shadow Education, American Style: Test Preparation, the SAT and College Enrollment.” Social Forces 89 (2): 435–61. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2010.0105
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byun, S., H. J. Chung, and D. P. Baker. 2018. “Global Patterns of the Use of Shadow Education: Student, Family, and National Influences.” In Research in the Sociology of Education, edited by Hyunjoon Park and Grace Kao. Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited.
   Google Scholar
• Carolan, Brian V., and Sara J. Wasserman. 2015. “Does Parenting Style Matter? Concerted Cultivation, Educational Expectations, and the Transmission of Educational Advantage.” Sociological Perspectives 58 (2): 168–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121414562967
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, Tak, Cheung, Zhiding Shu, and Hong Ying Xiao. 2021. “Perception of Chinese Parents toward School and Family Collaboration.” School Community Journal 31 (1): 233–58.
   Google Scholar
• Choi, Yool, and Hyunjoon Park. 2016. “Shadow Education and Educational Inequality in South Korea: Examining Effect Heterogeneity of Shadow Education on Middle School Seniors’ Achievement Test Scores.” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 44:22–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2016.01.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chua, Amy. 2011. Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother. New York: Penguin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, Scott. 2024. “Cultural Capital—Field Connections for Three Populations of Chinese Students: A Theoretical Framework for Empirical Research.” Chinese Sociological Review 56 (1):1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2024.2307480
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day, Elizabeth, and Aryn M. Dotterer. 2018. “Parental Involvement and Adolescent Academic Outcomes: Exploring Differences in Beneficial Strategies across Racial/Ethnic Groups.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 47 (6): 1332–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0853-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Castro, Belinda V., and Allan B. de Guzman. 2010. “Push and Pull Factors Affecting Filipino Students’ Shadow Education (SE) Participation.” KEDI Journal of Educational Policy 7:43–66. https://doi.org/10.22804/KJEP.2010.7.1.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deloitte. 2018. “New Era of Education: Report on Chinese Education Development in 2018.” https://www2.deloitte.com/cn/zh/pages/technology-media-and-telecommunications/articles/new-era-of-education-china-education-development-report-2018.html. (in Chinese).
   Google Scholar
• Domina, Thurston. 2005. “Leveling the Home Advantage: Assessing the Effectiveness of Parental Involvement in Elementary School.” Sociology of Education 78 (3): 233–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070507800303
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Entrich, SteveR. 2017. Shadow Education and Social Inequalities in Japan: Evolving Patterns and Conceptual Implications. Cham: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Entrich, Steve R., and Wolfgang Lauterbach. 2019. “Shadow Education in Germany: Compensatory or Status Attainment Strategy? Findings from the German Life Study.” International Journal for Research on Extended Education 7 (2-2019): 143–59. https://doi.org/10.3224/ijree.v7i2.04
   Google Scholar
• Entrich, Steve R. 2020. “Worldwide Shadow Education and Social Inequality: Explaining Differences in the Socioeconomic Gap in Access to Shadow Education across 63 Societies.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology 61 (6): 441–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020715220987861
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, JoyceL. 2019. “Theory to Practice: School and Family Partnerships Lead to School Improvement and Student Success.” In School, Family, and Community Interaction, 39–52. Boca Raton, FL: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Fingerman, Karen L., Yen-Pi Cheng, Eric D. Wesselmann, Steven Zarit, Frank Furstenberg, and Kira S. Birditt. 2012. “Helicopter Parents and Landing Pad Kids: Intense Parental Support of Grown Children.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 74 (4): 880–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00987.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, Yan, Xueqin Wu, and Xiaoli Liu. 2019. “Challenges and Opportunities in Parent-Teacher Relationships in Contemporary China.” Comparative and International Education 47 (2): 5. https://doi.org/10.5206/cie-eci.v47i2.9331
   Google Scholar
• Heo, Nayoung. 2022. “‘She Has the Japanese Style’: Parenting by Japanese Immigrant Women in Korea from the Perspective of Their Children.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19 (3): 1494. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornby, Garry, and Rayleen Lafaele. 2011. “Barriers to Parental Involvement in Education: An Explanatory Model.” Educational Review 63 (1): 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2010.488049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoy, WayneK, and CecilG. Miskel. 2013. Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Ireson, Judith. 2004. “Private Tutoring: How Prevalent and Effective is It?” London Review of Education 2 (2): 109. https://doi.org/10.1080/1474846042000229458
   Google Scholar
• Ishizuka, Patrick. 2019. “Social Class, Gender, and Contemporary Parenting Standards in the United States: Evidence from a National Survey Experiment.” Social Forces 98 (1): 31–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy107
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Islam, Asad. 2019. “Parent-Teacher Meetings and Student Outcomes: Evidence from a Developing Country.” European Economic Review 111:273–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2018.09.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansen, D., L. Elffers, and S. Jak. 2021. “A Cross-National Exploration of Shadow Education Use by High and Low SES Families.” International Studies in Sociology of Education 32 (3): 653–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/09620214.2021.1880332
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Edward, Joshua Goodman, and MartinR. West. 2021. “Kumon in: The Recent, Rapid Rise of Private Tutoring Centers.” Brown University Annenberg EdWorkingPaper 21–367.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, Ji-Ha, and Daekwon Park. 2010. “The Determinants of Demand for Private Tutoring in South Korea.” Asia Pacific Education Review 11 (3): 411–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-009-9067-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Taehoon, Hayun Jang, and Jinho Kim. 2022. “Do Peers Affect Private Tutoring Engagement in Korea? Evidence from a Quasi-Experimental Approach.” Asia Pacific Education Review 23 (2): 271–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-021-09738-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Taejong. 2004. “Shadow Education: School Quality and Demand for Private Tutoring in Korea.” KDI School of Public Policy and Management Paper. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.635864
   Google Scholar
• Kim, Young Chun, and Jung-Hoon Jung. 2019. “Worldwide Shadow Education Epidemic: From East Asia to Western Hemisphere.” In Shadow Education as Worldwide Curriculum Studies, 25–60. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
   Google Scholar
• Kobakhidze, Magda Nutsa. 2014. “Corruption Risks of Private Tutoring: Case of Georgia.” Asia Pacific Journal of Education 34 (4): 455–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2014.963506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuan, Ping-Yin. 2018. “Effects of Cram Schooling on Academic Achievement and Mental Health of Junior High Students in Taiwan.” Chinese Sociological Review 50 (4): 391–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2018.1526069
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, Indal, and Indrani Roy Chowdhury. 2021. “Shadow Education in India: Participation and Socioeconomic Determinants.” Journal of South Asian Development 16 (2): 244–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/09731741211032472
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lareau, Annette. 2011. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, Soojeong, and Roger C. Shouse. 2011. “The Impact of Prestige Orientation on Shadow Education in South Korea.” Sociology of Education 84 (3): 212–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040711411278
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, Wei, Hongbiao Yin, Jiwei Han, and Jiying Han. 2020. “Teacher-Student Interaction and Chinese Students’ Mathematics Learning Outcomes: The Mediation of Mathematics Achievement Emotions.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (13): 4742. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134742
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Shujie, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie. 2012. “Chinese Teachers’ Work Stress and Their Turnover Intention.” International Journal of Educational Research 53:160–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.006
   Google Scholar
• Liu, Yixiao, Quanbao Jiang, and Feinian Chen. 2020. “Children’s Gender and Parental Educational Strategies in Rural and Urban China: The Moderating Roles of Sibship Size and Family Resources.” Chinese Sociological Review 52 (3): 239–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2020.1717942
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas, Samuel R., and Delma Byrne. 2017. “Effectively Maintained Inequality in Education: An Introduction.” American Behavioral Scientist 61 (1): 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764216682992
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLanahan, Sara, and Christine Percheski. 2008. “Family Structure and the Reproduction of Inequalities.” Annual Review of Sociology 34 (1): 257–76. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134549
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, John W. 1977. “The Effect of Education as an Institution.” American Journal of Sociology 83 (1): 55–77. https://doi.org/10.1086/226506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milkie, Melissa A., and Catharine H. Warner. 2014. “Status Safeguarding: Mothers’ Work to Secure Children’s Place in the Social Hierarchy.” In Intensive Mothering: The Cultural Contradictions of Modern Motherhood, edited by Linda Rose Ennis, 66–85. Ontario: Demeter Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mori, Izumi, and David Baker. 2011. “The Origin of Universal Shadow Education: What the Supplemental Education Phenomenon Tells Us about the Postmodern Institution of Education.” Asia Pacific Education Review 11 (1): 36–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-009-9057-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, Joel I. 1972. “High School Context and College Plans: The Impact of Social Structure on Aspirations.” American Sociological Review 37 (2): 143–8. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan, Zheng, Donald Lien, and Hao Wang. 2022. “Peer Effects and Shadow Education.” Economic Modelling 111:105822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2022.105822
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, Hyunjoon, Claudia Buchmann, Jaesung Choi, and Joseph J. Merry. 2016. “Learning beyond the School Walls: Trends and Implications.” Annual Review of Sociology 42 (1): 231–52. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074341
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, Hyunjoon, Soo-yong Byun, and Kyung-keun Kim. 2011. “Parental Involvement and Students’ Cognitive Outcomes in Korea: Focusing on Private Tutoring.” Sociology of Education 84 (1): 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040710392719
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pillet-Shore, Danielle. 2015. “Being a “Good Parent” in Parent–Teacher Conferences.” Journal of Communication 65 (2): 373–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12146
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redding, Sam, Janis Langdon, Joseph Meyer, and Pamela Sheley. 2004. “The Effects of Comprehensive Parent Engagement on Student Learning Outcomes.” American Educational 14 (4): 3–7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228862484
   Google Scholar
• Resh, Nura, and Yechezkel Dar. 2012. “The Rise and Fall of School Integration in Israel: Research and Policy Analysis.” British Educational Research Journal 38 (6): 929–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2011.603034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, Allison M., and Helen Patrick. 2001. “The Classroom Social Environment and Changes in Adolescents’ Motivations and Engagement during Middle School.” American Educational Research Journal 38 (2): 437–60. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312038002437
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santiago, Rachel T., S. Andrew Garbacz, Tiffany Beattie, and Christabelle L. Moore. 2016. “Parent-Teacher Relationships in Elementary School: An Examination of Parent-Teacher Trust.” Psychology in the Schools 53 (10): 1003–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21971
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaub, Maryellen. 2010. “Parenting for Cognitive Development from 1950 to 2000: The Institutionalization of Mass Education and the Social Construction of Parenting in the United States.” Sociology of Education 83 (1): 46–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040709356566
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, W. Richard. 2013. Institutions and Organizations: Ideas, Interests, and Identities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Shi, Jing, and Zexuan Yin. 2020. “Survey on the Educational Needs and Mentality Characteristics of Chinese Parents under the New Situation.” Governance 277 (13): 11–7. (in Chinese).
   Google Scholar
• Stevenson, David Lee, and David P. Baker. 1992. “Shadow Education and Allocation in Formal Schooling: Transition to University in Japan.” American Journal of Sociology 97 (6): 1639–57. https://doi.org/10.1086/229942
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vincent, Carol, and Stephen J. Ball. 2007. “Making Up’ the Middle-Class Child: Families, Activities and Class Dispositions.” Sociology 41 (6): 1061–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038507082315
   Google Scholar
• Walker, Allan, Haiyan Qian, and Shuang Zhang. 2011. “Secondary School Principals in Curriculum Reform: Victims or Accomplices?” Frontiers of Education in China 6 (3): 388–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11516-011-0138-y
   Google Scholar
• Woo, Hongjoo, and Nancy N. Hodges. 2015. “Education Fever: Exploring Private Education Consumption Motivations among Korean Parents of Preschool Children.” Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal 44 (2): 127–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Hyunwoo. 2017. “The Role of Social Capital at Home and in School in Academic Achievement: The Case of South Korea.” Asia Pacific Education Review 18 (3): 373–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-017-9492-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye, Hua. 2015. “Key-Point Schools and Entry into Tertiary Education in China.” Chinese Sociological Review 47 (2): 128–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2014.990321
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• You, Yongheng. 2007. “A Deep Reflection on the “Key School System” in Basic Education in China.” Frontiers of Education in China 2 (2): 229–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11516-007-0019-6
   Google Scholar
• Yu, Hui. 2020. “The Making of ‘Incompetent Parents’: Intersectional Identity, Habitus, and Chinese Rural Migrant’s Parental Educational Involvement.” The Australian Educational Researcher 47 (4): 555–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-019-00361-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yulianti, Kartika, Eddie Denessen, Mienke Droop, and Gert-Jan Veerman. 2022. “School Efforts to Promote Parental Involvement: The Contributions of School Leaders and Teachers.” Educational Studies 48 (1): 98–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1740978
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Wei. 2014. “The Demand for Shadow Education in China: Mainstream Teachers and Power Relations.” Asia Pacific Journal of Education 34 (4): 436–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2014.960798
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Wei, and Mark Bray. 2015. “Shadow Education in Chongqing, China: Factors Underlying Demand and Policy Implications.” KEDI Journal of Educational Policy 12 (1): 83–106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Wei, and Mark Bray. 2018. “Equalising Schooling, Unequalising Private Supplementary Tutoring: Access and Tracking through Shadow Education in China.” Oxford Review of Education 44 (2): 221–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2017.1389710
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Wei, and Mark Bray. 2020. “Comparative Research on Shadow Education: Achievements, Challenges, and the Agenda Ahead.” European Journal of Education 55 (3): 322–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12413
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Wei, and Yoko Yamato. 2018. “Shadow Education in East Asia: Entrenched but Evolving Private Supplementary Tutoring.” In Routledge International Handbook of Schools and Schooling in Asia, edited by Kerry J. Kennedy, and John Chi-Kin Lee, 323–32. Boca Raton, FL: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, Yueyun, and Yu Xie. 2016. “Family Background, Private Tutoring, and Children’s Educational Performance in Contemporary China.” Chinese Sociological Review 48 (1): 64–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2015.1096193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, Xu. 2015. Competition and Compassion in Chinese Secondary Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Zhou, Dong-yang, and Yu-xiao Wu. 2018. “Educational Competition and Reference Group: A Sociological Explanation of the Popularity of Private Tutoring in China.” Journal of Nanjing Normal University (Social Science Edition) 5:84–97. in Chinese).
   Google Scholar