932
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Epidemiology and Etiology of Community-Acquired CNS Infections in Iran: A Narrative Review

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon &
Article: FNL73 | Received 14 Jul 2023, Accepted 13 Nov 2023, Published online: 02 Jan 2024

References

  • Erdem H , Inan A , Guven E et al. The burden and epidemiology of community-acquired central nervous system infections: a multinational study. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 36(9), 1595–1611 (2017).
  • Van de Beek D , de Gans J , Tunkel AR et al. Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(1), 44–53 (2006).
  • van de Beek D , de Gans J , Tunkel AR et al. Community-Acquired Bacterial Meningitis in Adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(1), 44–53 (2006).
  • Dalman C , Allebeck P , Gunnell D et al. Infections in the CNS during childhood and the risk of subsequent psychotic illness: a cohort study of more than one million Swedish subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry 165(1), 59–65 (2008).
  • Lotz SK , Blackhurst BM , Reagin KL et al. Microbial infections are a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases. Front. Cell Neurosci. 15, 691136 (2021).
  • Sousa Junior IP , Vieira TCRG . Enterovirus infection and its relationship with neurodegenerative diseases. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 118, e220252 (2023).
  • Robertson FC , Lepard JR , Mekary RA et al. Epidemiology of central nervous system infectious diseases: a meta-analysis and systematic review with implications for neurosurgeons worldwide. J. Neurosurg. 130(4), 1–20 (2018).
  • Robertson FC , Lepard JR , Mekary RA et al. Epidemiology of central nervous system infectious diseases: a meta-analysis and systematic review with implications for neurosurgeons worldwide. J. Neurosurg. 130(4), 1107–1126 (2018).
  • Bennett JE , Dolin R , Blaser MJ . Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases (9th ed.). Elsevier Saunders (2019).
  • John CC , Carabin H , Montano SM et al. Global research priorities for infections that affect the nervous system. Nature 527(7578), S178–S186 (2015).
  • Cárdenas G , Salgado P , Laura-Foronda E et al. Neglected and (re-)emergent infections of the CNS i n low-/middle-income countries. Le Infezioni in Medicina 29(4), 513–525 (2021).
  • Ghiami-Shamami F , Sabziparvar AA , Shinoda S . Long-term comparison of the climate extremes variability in different climate types located in coastal and inland regions of Iran. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 136(3–4), 875–897 (2019).
  • Ashraf S , Yazdani-Biouki R , Mousavi-Baygi M et al. Investigation of temporal and spatial climate variability and aridity of Iran. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 118, 35–46(2014).
  • Ghasemi AR , Khalili D . The association between regional and global atmospheric patterns and winter precipitation in Iran. Atmospheric Research 88(2), 116–133 (2008).
  • Wang H , Zhao S , Wang S et al. Global magnitude of encephalitis burden and its evolving pattern over the past 30 years. The Journal of Infection 84(6), 777–787 (2022).
  • Venkatesan A , Michael BD , Probasco JC et al. Acute encephalitis in immunocompetent adults. The Lancet 393(10172), 702–716 (2019).
  • Tyler KL . Acute Viral Encephalitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 379(6), 557–566 (2018).
  • Gluckman SJ . Viral encephalitis in adults (2021). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/viral-encephalitis-in-adults?search=HSV%20ENCEPHALITIS%20ADULTS&source=search_result&selectedTitle=3∼96&usage_type=default&display_rank=3
  • Sheybani F , Arabikhan H , Naderi H . Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) and its outcome in the patients who were admitted to a tertiary care hospital in Mashhad, Iran, over a 10-year period. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research: JCDR 7(8), 1626 (2013).
  • Sasan MS , Jarahi L . Epidemiology Of Pediatrics Encephalitis in Mashhad. Medical Journal of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences 60(3), 503–509 (2017).
  • Ghannad MS , Solgi G , Hashemi SH et al. Herpes simplex virus encephalitis in hamadan, iran. Iranian Journal of Microbiology 5(3), 272 (2013).
  • Peidaee E , Sheybani F , Naderi H et al. The etiological spectrum of febrile encephalopathy in adult patients: a cross-sectional study from a developing country. Emergency Medicine International 2018, (2018).
  • Hashemian S , Ashrafzadeh F , Akhondian J et al. Epstein-barr virus encephalitis: a case report. Iranian Journal of Child Neurology 9(1), 107–110 (2015).
  • Petersen LR . Arthropod-borne encephalitides (2021). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/arthropod-borne-encephalitides?search=Arthropod-borne%20encephalitides&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1∼150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • Madewell ZJ . Arboviruses and their vectors. Southern Medical Journal 113(10), 520 (2020).
  • Bogovic P , Strle F . Tick-borne encephalitis: a review of epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and management. World Journal of Clinical Cases 3(5), 430–441 (2015).
  • Petersen L . Epidemiology and pathogenesis of West Nile virus infection (2021). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-and-pathogenesis-of-west-nile-virus-infection?search=Epidemiology%20and%20pathogenesis%20of%20West%20Nile%20virus%20infection&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1~90&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • McDonald E , Mathis S , Martin SW et al. Surveillance for West Nile Virus Disease—United States, 2009–2018. Wiley Online Library, 1959–1974 (2021).
  • Eybpoosh S , Fazlalipour M , Baniasadi V et al. Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in the Eastern Mediterranean region: a systematic review. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 13(1), e0007081 (2019).
  • Naficy K , Saidi S . Serological survey on viral antibodies in Iran. Trop. Geogr. Med. 22(2), 183–188 (1970).
  • Chinikar S , Ghiasi SM , Shah-Hosseini N et al. Preliminary study of dengue virus infection in Iran. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 11(3), 166–169 (2013).
  • Bagheri M , Terenius O , Oshaghi MA et al. West Nile Virus in Mosquitoes of Iranian Wetlands. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, NY) 15(12), 750–754 (2015).
  • Ahmadnejad F , Otarod V , Fallah MH et al. Spread of West Nile virus in Iran: a cross-sectional serosurvey in equines, 2008–2009. Epidemiol. Infect. 139(10), 1587–1593 (2011).
  • Saidi S , Tesh R , Javadian E et al. The prevalence of human infection with West Nile virus in Iran. Iranian Journal of Public Health 5(1), 8–13 (1976).
  • Sharifi Z , Mahmoodian Shooshtari M , Talebian A . A study of West Nile virus infection in Iranian blood donors. Archives of Iranian Medicine 13(1), 1–4 (2010).
  • Chinikar S , Shah-Hosseini N , Mostafavi E et al. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus in Iran. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases (Larchmont, NY) 13(8), 586–589 (2013).
  • Ziyaeyan M , Behzadi MA , Leyva-Grado VH et al. Widespread circulation of West Nile virus, but not Zika virus in southern Iran. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 12(12), e0007022 (2018).
  • Meshkat Z , Chinikar S , Shakeri M et al. Prevalence of West Nile virus in Mashhad, Iran: a population–based study. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 8(3), 203–205 (2015).
  • Chinikar S , Javadi A , Ataei B et al. Detection of West Nile virus genome and specific antibodies in Iranian encephalitis patients. Epidemiology & Infection 140(8), 1525–1529 (2012).
  • World Health Organization . Tick-borne encephalitis. World Health Organization (2014). www.who.int/immunization/diseases/tick_encephalitis/en/
  • Erdem H , Inan A , Guven E et al. The burden and epidemiology of community-acquired central nervous system infections: a multinational study. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 36(9), 1595–1611 (2017).
  • Bogovič P , Strle F . Tick-Borne Encephalitis. Meningoencephalitis-Disease Which Requires Optimal Approach in Emergency Manner. IntechOpen (2017).
  • Süss J . Tick-borne encephalitis 2010: epidemiology, risk areas, and virus strains in Europe and Asia—an overview. Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases 2(1), 2–15 (2011).
  • Rabiee MH , Mahmoudi A , Siahsarvie R et al. Rodent-borne diseases and their public health importance in Iran. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 12(4), 3–10 (2018).
  • Bogovic P , Strle F . Tick-borne encephalitis: a review of epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and management. World Journal of Clinical Cases: WJCC 3(5), 430 (2015).
  • Turtle L , Solomon T . Japanese encephalitis — the prospects for new treatments. Nature Reviews Neurology 14(5), 298–313 (2018).
  • Vannice KS , Hills SL , Schwartz LM et al. The future of Japanese encephalitis vaccination: expert recommendations for achieving and maintaining optimal JE control. NPJ Vaccines 6(1), 82 (2021).
  • World Health Organization . Japanese encephalitis reported cases. World Health Organization (2019). https://apps.who.int/immunization_monitoring/globalsummary/timeseries/tsincidencejapenc.html
  • Lum L , Ng CJ , Khoo EM . Managing dengue fever in primary care: a practical approach. Malaysian Family Physician: the Official Journal of the Academy of Family Physicians of Malaysia 9(2), 2–10 (2014).
  • Kulkarni R , Pujari S , Gupta D . Neurological Manifestations of Dengue Fever. Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology 24(5), 693–702 (2021).
  • Dengue: Guidelines for Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention and Control: New Edition. World Health Organization, Geneva (2009). www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK143159/?report=classic
  • Verma R , Sahu R , Holla V . Neurological manifestations of dengue infection: a review. J. Neurol. Sci. 346(1–2), 26–34 (2014).
  • El-Hefni A . Recent Outbreaks of Dengue Fever in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: A Narrative Mini-review. Journal of African Research and Studies and the Nile Basin 1(2), 224–241 (2020).
  • Heydari M , Metanat M , Rouzbeh-Far MA et al. Dengue Fever as an Emerging Infection in Southeast Iran. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98(5), 1469–1471 (2018).
  • Brizzi K . Neurologic Manifestation of Chikungunya Virus. Current Infectious Disease Reports 19(2), 6 (2017).
  • Petersen LR , Powers AM . Chikungunya: epidemiology. F1000Research 5, 2–3 (2016).
  • Malik MR , Mnzava A , Mohareb E et al. Chikungunya outbreak in Al-Hudaydah, Yemen, 2011: epidemiological characterization and key lessons learned for early detection and control. Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health 4(3), 203–211 (2014).
  • El Bushra HE , Habtewold BW , Al Gasseer N et al. Outbreak of chikungunya fever in Sudan, 2018–2019. Juniper Online J. Public Health 4, 555644 (2019).
  • Bakhshi H , Mousson L , Moutailler S et al. Detection of arboviruses in mosquitoes: evidence of circulation of chikungunya virus in Iran. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 14(6), e0008135 (2020).
  • Pouriayevali MH , Rezaei F , Jalali T et al. Imported cases of Chikungunya virus in Iran. BMC Infectious Diseases 19(1), 1004 (2019).
  • Petersen LR , Jamieson DJ , Powers AM et al. Zika Virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 374(16), 1552–1563 (2016).
  • World Health Organization . Zika virus. World Health Organization (2018). www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
  • Hasbun R . Meningitis and Encephalitis: Management and Prevention Challenges. Springer, Switzerland (2018).
  • Ziyaeyan M , Behzadi MA , Leyva-Grado VH et al. Widespread circulation of West Nile virus, but not Zika virus in southern Iran. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 12(12), e0007022 (2018).
  • Gans H , Maldonado YA , Post T . Measles: Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention (2022). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/measles-clinical-manifestations-diagnosis-treatment-and-prevention?search=MEASLES&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1∼150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • Gans H , Maldonado YA , Post T . Measles: Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention (2022). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/measles-clinical-manifestations-diagnosis-treatment-and-prevention?search=MEASLES&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1∼150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • Mostafavi E , Ghasemian A , Abdinasir A et al. Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean region, 2001–2018. International Journal of Health Policy and Management 11(8), 1286 (2022).
  • Namaki S , Gouya MM , Zahraei SM et al. The elimination of measles in Iran. The Lancet Global Health 8(2), e173–e174 (2020).
  • Shafyi A , Lotfi J , Mirchamsy H . Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis in Iran. The Kitasato Archives of Experimental Medicine 57(4), 267–271 (1984).
  • Patterson MC . Neurological Complications of Measles (Rubeola). Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 20(2), 2 (2020).
  • Roberts L . How COVID hurt the fight against other dangerous diseases. Nature 592(7855), 502–504 (2021).
  • Blanton JD , Dyer J , McBrayer J et al. Rabies surveillance in the United States during 2011. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 241(6), 712–722 (2012).
  • World Health Organization . WHO expert consultation on rabies: third report. World Health Organization (2018).
  • Abedi M , Doosti-Irani A , Jahanbakhsh F et al. Epidemiology of animal bite in Iran during a 20-year period (1993–2013): a meta-analysis. Tropical Medicine and Health 47(1), 55 (2019).
  • Hosseini Heydarabadi F , Baessi K , Bashar R et al. A phylogenetic study of new rabies virus strains in different regions of Iran. Virus Genes 56(3), 361–368 (2020).
  • Khashei B , Baferani MA , Bashar R et al. Ante-mortem Diagnosis of Human Rabies Cases Using SYBR Green Real-Time PCR. Archives of Iranian Medicine (AIM) 21(10), 473–477 (2018).
  • Ebrahimzadeh Leylabadlo H , Bannazadeh Baghi H . Rabies Elimination by 2030: What Challenges Does Iran Face? Iranian Journal of Public Health 49(7), 1397–1398 (2020).
  • Goenka A , Michael BD , Ledger E et al. Neurological manifestations of influenza infection in children and adults: results of a National British Surveillance Study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 58(6), 775–784 (2014).
  • Davis LE . Neurologic and muscular complications of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) pandemic. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 10(6), 476–483 (2010).
  • Gouya M , Nabavi M , Soroush M et al. Mortality from pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in Iran. Iranian Red. Crescent Medical Journal 13(10), 698 (2011).
  • Asadi-Pooya AA , Yaghoubi E , Nikseresht A et al. The Neurological Manifestations of H1N1 Influenza Infection; Diagnostic Challenges and Recommendations. Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences 36(1), 36–39 (2011).
  • Logan SAE , MacMahon E . Viral meningitis. BMJ 336(7634), 36–40 (2008).
  • Delerme S , Castro S , Viallon A et al. Meningitis in elderly patients. European Journal of Emergency Medicine 16(5), 273–276 (2009).
  • Cantu RM , M Das J . Viral Meningitis. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island (FL) (2023).
  • Mathew S , Al Khatib HA , Al Ansari K et al. Epidemiology Profile of Viral Meningitis Infections Among Patients in Qatar (2015–2018). Frontiers in Medicine 8, 663694 (2021).
  • Logan SAE , MacMahon E . Viral meningitis. BMJ 336(7634), 36–40 (2008).
  • Kupila L , Vuorinen T , Vainionpää R et al. Etiology of aseptic meningitis and encephalitis in an adult population. Neurology 66(1), 75–80 (2006).
  • Hosseininasab A , Alborzi A , Ziyaeyan M et al. Viral etiology of aseptic meningitis among children in southern Iran. J. Med. Virol. 83(5), 884–888 (2011).
  • Rahimi P , Naser HM , Siadat SD et al. Genotyping of human parechoviruses in Iranian young children with aseptic meningitis and sepsis-like illness. J. Neurovirol. 19(6), 595–600 (2013).
  • Rasti M , Makvandi M , Neisi N et al. Three cases of mumps virus and enterovirus coinfection in children with enteroviral meningitis. Medicine 95(49), e5610 (2016).
  • Ghabouli Shahroodi MJ , Ghazvini K , Sadeghi R et al. Enteroviral Meningitis in neonates and children of Mashhad, Iran. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology 9(5), 2–3 (2016).
  • Cecilia Di Pentima M , Kaplan SL . Viral meningitis: epidemiology, pathogenesis, and etiology in children (2022). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/viral-meningitis-epidemiology-pathogenesis-and-etiology-in-children?search=viral%20meningitis&topicRef=6028&source=see_link
  • Rahimi P , Roohandeh A , Sohrabi A et al. Impact of Human Enterovirus 71 Genotypes in Meningoencephalitis in Iran. Jundishapur J. Microbiol. 8(12), e27113 (2015).
  • Roohandeh A , Rahimi P , Sohrabi A et al. Frequency of human enterovirus 71 in children under 8 years old with aseptic menengitis in Tehran. Clinical Laboratory 59(7–8), 915–920 (2013).
  • Hasbun R , Rosenthal N , Balada-Llasat JM et al. Epidemiology of Meningitis and Encephalitis in the United States, 2011–2014. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 65(3), 359–363 (2017).
  • Martin NG , Iro MA , Sadarangani M et al. Hospital admissions for viral meningitis in children in England over five decades: a population-based observational study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 16(11), 1279–1287 (2016).
  • Zahraei SM , Gouya MM , Mokhtari Azad T et al. Successful control and impending elimination of measles in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 204(Suppl. 1), S305–S311 (2011).
  • Esteghamati A , Keshtkar A , Heshmat R et al. Adverse reactions following immunization with MMR vaccine in children at selected provinces of Iran. Archives of Iranian Medicine 14(2),91–95 (2011).
  • Sasan MS , Haji Shamsaei M . Aseptic Meningitis after MMR Vaccination in Children of Mashhad. Medical Journal of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences 53(3), 163–168 (2010).
  • Oskouie Sh A , Barzegar M , Malekian A . Relationship between aseptic meningitis and MMR vaccination. Medical Journal of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences 28(4), 81–84 (2010).
  • Pormohammad A , Behboudi E , Ramezani A et al. Global Study of Viral Meningitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. International Journal of Pediatrics 10(4), 15865–15880 (2022).
  • Pormohammad A , Lashkarbolouki S , Azimi T et al. Clinical characteristics and molecular epidemiology of children with meningitis in Tehran, Iran: a prospective study. New Microbes and New Infections 32, 100594 (2019).
  • Akya A , Ahmadi K , Zehtabian S et al. Study of the frequency of herpesvirus infections among patients suspected aseptic meningitis in the West of Iran. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology 8(10), 3–4 (2015).
  • Sasan MS , Alborzi A , Ziyaeyan M . Epidemiology of aseptic meningitis in infants and children (shiraz-Iran). Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 7(4), 116–118 (2012).
  • Amjadi O , Rafiei A , Haghshenas M et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of seroprevalence of varicella zoster virus: a nationwide population-based study. Journal of Clinical Virology 87, 49–59 (2017).
  • Allami A , Mohammadi N . Varicella immunity in Iran: an age-stratified systematic review and meta-analysis. Iranian Journal of Microbiology 6(6), 372–381 (2014).
  • Bennett JE , Dolin R , Blaser MJ . Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’S Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases (9th ed.). Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA, 19103–2899 (2020).
  • Ebrahimi TF , Noorbakhsh S , Monavari HR et al. Iranian Journal of Pathology, SEARCHING the human herpes virus 6 and 7 (PCR) in CSF of children admitted in Pediatric Ward of Rasoul Hospital, Tehran, Iran. 7(2), 107–111 (2012).
  • Sanaei Dashti A , Alizadeh S , Karimi A et al. Diagnostic value of lactate, procalcitonin, ferritin, serum-C-reactive protein, and other biomarkers in bacterial and viral meningitis: a cross-sectional study. Medicine 96(35), e7637 (2017).
  • Bonthius DJ . Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus: an underrecognized cause of neurologic disease in the fetus, child, and adult. Semin. Pediatr. Neurol. 19(3), 89–95 (2012).
  • Reed KD . Viral Zoonoses. Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences. Elsevier (2018).
  • Dehghani R , Kassiri H , Khodkar I et al. A comprehensive overview on sandfly fever. Journal of Acute Disease 10(3), 98 (2021).
  • Saidi S , Tesh R , Javadian E et al. Studies on the epidemiology of sandfly fever in Iran. II. The prevalence of human and animal infection with five phlebotomus fever virus serotypes in Isfahan province. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 26(2), 288–293 (1977).
  • Tesh R , Saidi S , Javadian E et al. Studies on the epidemiology of sandfly fever in Iran. I. Virus isolates obtained from Phlebotomus. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 26(2), 282–287 (1977).
  • Shiraly R , Khosravi A , Farahangiz S . Seroprevalence of sandfly fever virus infection in military personnel on the western border of Iran. Journal of Infection and Public Health 10(1), 59–63 (2017).
  • Zunt JR , Kassebaum NJ , Blake N et al. Global, regional, and national burden of meningitis, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. The Lancet Neurology 17(12), 1061–1082 (2018).
  • Brouwer MC , Van De Beek D . Epidemiology of community-acquired bacterial meningitis. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 31(1), 78–84 (2018).
  • Esteghamati A , Asgari F , Goodarzi N . National Guideline on Meningitis Surveillance in Iran (3rd ed.). The Ministry of Health and Medical Education of Iran, Tehran, Iran (2004).
  • Giorgi Rossi P , Mantovani J , Ferroni E et al. Incidence of bacterial meningitis (2001–2005) in Lazio, Italy: the results of a integrated surveillance system. BMC Infectious Diseases 9(1), 13 (2009).
  • Soeters HM , Diallo AO , Bicaba BW et al. Bacterial Meningitis Epidemiology in Five Countries in the Meningitis Belt of Sub-Saharan Africa, 2015–2017. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 220(Suppl. 4), S165–S174 (2019).
  • Mosavi-Jarrahi A , Esteghamati A , Asgari F et al. Temporal analysis of the incidence of meningitis in the Tehran metropolitan area, 1999–2005. Population Health Metrics 7, 19 (2009).
  • Alizadeh Chamkhaleh M , Esteghamati A , Sayyahfar S et al. Serotype distribution of Streptococcus pneumoniae among healthy carriers and clinical patients: a systematic review from Iran. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 39(12), 2257–2267 (2020).
  • Attarpour-Yazdi MM , Ghamarian A , Mousaviehzadeh M et al. Identification of the serotypes of bacterial meningitis agents; implication for vaccine usage. Iranian Journal of Microbiology 6(4), 211 (2014).
  • Heidari S , Karami M , Zahraei SM et al. Epidemiological profile of meningitis following pentavalent vaccination in Iran: impact of vaccine introduction. Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health 11(3), 310 (2021).
  • Tavana AM , Ataee R . Meningococcal meningitis control in Iran: five year comparative study 2000–2004. Journal of Medical Sciences (Pakistan) 9(1), 51–54 (2009).
  • Mehrdadi S . Acute Bacterial Meningitis: Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention. J. Arch. Mil. Med. 6(4), e84749 (2019).
  • van der Flier M . Neonatal meningitis: small babies, big problem. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health 5(6), 386–387 (2021).
  • Furyk J , Swann O , Molyneux E . Systematic review: neonatal meningitis in the developing world. Tropical Medicine & International Health 16(6), 672–679 (2011).
  • Zamani A , Zamani F . Cerebrospinal fluid findings in neonatal bacterial meningitis. Medical Journal of The Islamic Republic of Iran (MJIRI) 19(3), 241–245 (2005).
  • Khalessi N , Afsharkhas L . Neonatal meningitis: risk factors, causes, and neurologic complications. Iranian Journal of Child Neurology 8(4), 46 (2014).
  • Aletayeb MH , Ahmad FS , Masood D . Eleven-year study of causes of neonatal bacterial meningitis in Ahvaz, Iran. Pediatrics International 52(3), 463–466 (2010).
  • Aletayeb MH , Ahmad FS , Masood D . Eleven-year study of causes of neonatal bacterial meningitis in Ahvaz, Iran. Pediatrics International: Official Journal of the Japan Pediatric Society 52(3), 463–466 (2010).
  • Shiva F , Mosaffa N , Khabbaz R et al. Lumbar puncture in neonates under and over 72 hours of age. Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons--Pakistan: JCPSP 16(8), 525–528 (2006).
  • Zelellw DA , Dessie G , Worku Mengesha E et al. A systemic review and meta-analysis of the leading pathogens causing neonatal sepsis in developing countries. BioMed Research International 2021, 1–20 (2021).
  • Brouwer MC , Tunkel AR , van de Beek D . Epidemiology, diagnosis, and antimicrobial treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 23(3), 467–492 (2010).
  • Berangi Z , Karami M , Mohammadi Y et al. Epidemiological profile of meningitis in Iran before pentavalent vaccine introduction. BMC Pediatrics 19(1), 370 (2019).
  • van de Beek D , Cabellos C , Dzupova O et al. ESCMID guideline: diagnosis and treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 22, S37–S62 (2016).
  • Marandi FR , Rahbar M , Sabourian R et al. Evaluation of Iranian microbiology laboratories for identification of etiologic agents of bacterial meningitidis. Survey results of an external quality assessment scheme (EQAS) programme. JPMA: The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association 60(1), 48–51 (2010).
  • Houri H , Pormohammad A , Riahi SM et al. Acute bacterial meningitis in Iran: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE 12(2), e0169617 (2017).
  • Ghotaslou R , Yeganeh-Sefidan F , Salahi-Eshlaqi B et al. Etiology of Acute Bacterial Meningitis in Iran: a Systematic Review. Acta Medica Iranica 53(8), 454–461 (2015).
  • Motamedifar M , Ebrahim-Saraie HS , Mansury D et al. Prevalence of etiological agents and antimicrobial resistance patterns of bacterial meningitis in Nemazee Hospital, Shiraz, Iran. Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 10(2), e22703 (2015).
  • Abdinia B , Rezaee MA , Oskouie SA . Etiology and antimicrobial resistance patterns of acute bacterial meningitis in children: a 10-year referral hospital-based study in northwest iran. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal 16(7), e17616 (2014).
  • Heydari B , Khalili H , Karimzadeh I et al. Clinical, paraclinical, and antimicrobial resistance features of community-acquired acute bacterial meningitis at a large infectious diseases ward in Tehran, Iran. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: IJPR 15(1), 347 (2016).
  • Haghi-Ashtiani MT , Mamishi S , Shayanfar N et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles associated with bacterial meningitis among children: a referral hospital-based study in Iran. Acta Microbiologica et Immunologica Hungarica 58(4), 273–278 (2011).
  • Rezaeizadeh G , Pourakbari B , Ashtiani MH et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated from cerebrospinal fluids in an Iranian referral pediatric center, 1998–2008. Maedica 7(2), 131 (2012).
  • Bokaeian M , Khazaei HA , Javadimehr M . Serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance of invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates from children in Zahedan, Iran. African Journal of Microbiology Research 6(1), 28–33 (2012).
  • Houri H , Tabatabaei SR , Saee Y et al. Distribution of capsular types and drug resistance patterns of invasive pediatric Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates in Teheran, Iran. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 57, 21–26 (2017).
  • Tunkel AR . Chronic meningitis. Current Infectious Disease Reports 1(2), 160–165 (1999).
  • Coyle PK . Chronic meningitis. Current Treatment Options in Neurology 2(4), 375–387 (2000).
  • Anderson N , Willoughby E . Chronic meningitis without predisposing illness—a review of 83 cases. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine 63(1), 283–295 (1987).
  • Helbok R , Pongpakdee S , Yenjun S et al. Chronic meningitis in Thailand. Neuroepidemiology 26(1), 37–44 (2006).
  • Lan SH , Chang WN , Lu CH et al. Cerebral infarction in chronic meningitis: a comparison of tuberculous meningitis and cryptococcal meningitis. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine 94(5), 247–253 (2001).
  • Erdem H , Inan A , Guven E et al. The burden and epidemiology of community-acquired central nervous system infections: a multinational study. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 36(9), 1595–1611 (2017).
  • Bineshfar N , Rezaei A , Mirahmadi A et al. Evaluation of the epidemiologic, clinical, radiologic, and treatment methods of patients with subacute and chronic meningitis. BMC Neurology 22(1), 340 (2022).
  • Ahmadinejad Z , Rasolinejad M et al. Chronic Meningitis: a study on epidemiological and clinical findings, treatment results and prognosis of 97 patients. Acta Medica Iranica 39(4), 185–190 (1970).
  • Bennett JE , Dolin R , Blaser MJ . Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases (9th ed.). Elsevier Inc. (2020).
  • Brouwer MC , van de Beek D . Epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of brain abscesses. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 30(1), 129–134 (2017).
  • Ong C-T , Tsai C-F , Wong Y-S et al. Epidemiology of brain abscess in Taiwan: a 14-year population-based cohort study. PLOS ONE 12(5), e0176705 (2017).
  • Calfee DP , Wispelwey B ( Eds). Brain abscess. Seminars in neurology. Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue (2000). Copyright© 2000 by New …
  • Brouwer MC , Tunkel AR , McKhann GM et al. Brain Abscess. N. Engl. J. Med. 371(5), 447–456 (2014).
  • Faraji RM , Samini F . Clinical features and outcome of 83 adult patients with brain abscess. Arch. Iranian Med. 10(3), 379–382 (2007).
  • Mihai C , Jubelt B . Infectious Myelitis. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports 12(6), 633–641 (2012).
  • Bigouette JP , Wilkinson AL , Tallis G et al. Progress Toward Polio Eradication—Worldwide, January 2019–June 2021. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 70(34), 1129 (2021).
  • Danaei G , Farzadfar F , Kelishadi R et al. Iran in transition. The Lancet 393(10184), 1984–2005 (2019).
  • Shaghaghi M , Shahmahmoodi S , Abolhassani H et al. Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses and Children with Primary Immunodeficiency, Iran, 1995–2014. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 22(10), 1712–1719 (2016).
  • Shoja ZO , Tabatabie H , Shahmahmoudi S et al. Comparison of cell culture with RT-PCR for enterovirus detection in stool specimens from patients with acute flaccid paralysis. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 21(4), 232–236 (2007).
  • Bajoghli M , Naficy AR , Vafai A et al. Paralytic poliomyelitis in Isfahan. The Journal of Tropical Pediatrics and Environmental Child Health 23(5), 236–238 (1977).
  • Uprety P , Graf EH . Enterovirus infection and acute flaccid myelitis. Current Opinion in Virology 40, 55–60 (2020).
  • Rahimi P , Tabatabaie H , Gouya MM et al. Direct identification of non-polio enteroviruses in residual paralysis cases by analysis of VP1 sequences. Journal of Clinical Virology 45(2), 139–141 (2009).
  • Nejati A , Farahmand M , Tabatabaie H et al. Molecular typing of non-polio enteroviruses isolated from acute flaccid paralysis cases in Iran from 2010 to 2015. Virologica Sinica 32(3), 249–252 (2017).
  • Nejati A , Zahraei SM , Mahmoudi S et al. Molecular characterization of non-polio enteroviruses isolated from children with acute flaccid paralysis in IRAN, 2015–2018. Virus Genes 56, 531–536 (2020).
  • Yamauchi J , Araya N , Yagishita N et al. An update on human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-1)-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) focusing on clinical and laboratory biomarkers. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 218, 107669 (2021).
  • Gessain A , Gessain A , Cassar O . Epidemiological Aspects and World Distribution of HTLV-1 Infection. Frontiers in Microbiology 3(388), 379–382 (2012).
  • Parhizgari N , Gouya MM , Mostafavi E . Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases in Iran. Iranian Journal of Microbiology 9(3), 122–142 (2017).
  • Rafatpanah H , Hedayati-Moghaddam MR , Fathimoghadam F et al. High prevalence of HTLV-I infection in Mashhad, Northeast Iran: a population-based seroepidemiology survey. Journal of Clinical Virology: The Official Publication of the Pan American Society for Clinical Virology 52(3), 172–176 (2011).
  • Araújo AQ , Andrade-Filho AS , Castro-Costa CM et al. HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis in Brazil: a nationwide survey. HAM/TSP Brazilian Study Group. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology: Official Publication of the International Retrovirology Association 19(5), 536–541 (1998).
  • Taylor GP , Tosswill JH , Matutes E et al. Prospective study of HTLV-I infection in an initially asymptomatic cohort. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 22(1), 92–100 (1999).
  • Drevets DA , Leenen PJ , Greenfield RA . Invasion of the central nervous system by intracellular bacteria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17(2), 323–347 (2004).
  • Movahedi Z , Mahmoudi S , Mamishi S . Salmonella meningitis in a 16-month-old child with AIDS. The Turkish Journal of Pediatrics 55(2), 232–234 (2013).
  • Khalili M , Naderi HR , Salehnia N et al. Detection of Coxiella burnetii in acute undifferentiated febrile illnesses (AUFIs) in Iran. Tropical Doctor 46(4), 221–224 (2016).
  • Tabatabaie P , Syadati A . Bacillus anthracis as a cause of bacterial meningitis. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 12(12), 1035–1037 (1993).
  • Babamahmoodi F , Aghabarari F , Arjmand A et al. Three rare cases of anthrax arising from the same source. The Journal of Infection 53(4), e175–179 (2006).
  • Khoddami M , Shirvani F , Esmaeili J et al. Two rare presentations of fatal anthrax: meningeal and intestinal. Archives of Iranian Medicine 13(5), 432–435 (2010).
  • Chin JH . Neurotuberculosis: A Clinical Review. Semin. Neurol. 39(4), 456–461 (2019).
  • Thakur K , Das M , Dooley KE et al.et al. ( Eds). The global neurological burden of tuberculosis. Seminars in neurology. Thieme Medical Publishers (2018).
  • Kiani B , Raouf Rahmati A , Bergquist R et al. Spatio-temporal epidemiology of the tuberculosis incidence rate in Iran 2008 to 2018. BMC Public Health 21(1), 1093 (2021).
  • Neshati H , Sheybani F , Naderi H et al. Diagnostic errors in tuberculous patients: a multicenter study from a developing country. Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2018 (2018).
  • Leonard JM . Central nervous system tuberculosis. Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections 331–41 (2017).
  • Tahernia AC . Tuberculous meningitis. Modern diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, as exemplified in 38 cases in southern Iran. Clin. Pediatr. 6(3), 173–177 (1967).
  • Ahmadinejad Z , Ziaee V , Aghsaeifar M et al. The prognostic factors of tuberculous meningitis. International Journal of Infectious Diseases: IJID: Official Publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases 3(1), 1–7 (2003).
  • Fallah F , Nasiri MJ , Pormohammad A . Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine in Iran. Journal of Clinical Tuberculosis and Other Mycobacterial Diseases 11, 22 (2018).
  • Puvacić S , Dizdarević J , Santić Z et al. Protective effect of neonatal BCG vaccines against tuberculous meningitis. Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 4(1), 46–49 (2004).
  • Salmanzadeh S , Honarvar N , Goodarzi H et al. Chronic mycobacterial meningitis due to Mycobacterium chelonae: a case report. International Journal of Infectious Diseases: IJID: Official Publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases 27, 67–69 (2014).
  • Sharifi G , Mousavinejad SA , Moradian K et al. Pineal Region Tuberculoma Caused by Mycobacterium bovis as a Complication of Bacille Calmette-Guérin Vaccine: Case Report and Review of the Literature. World Neurosurgery 133, 416–418 (2020).
  • Dean AS , Crump L , Greter H et al. Global burden of human brucellosis: a systematic review of disease frequency. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6(10), e1865 (2012).
  • Leylabadlo HE , Bialvaei AZ , Samadi Kafil H . Brucellosis in Iran: why not eradicated? Clin. Infect. Dis. 61(10), 1629–1630 (2015).
  • Boschiroli M-L , Foulongne V , O’Callaghan D . Brucellosis: a worldwide zoonosis. Current Opinion in Microbiology 4(1), 58–64 (2001).
  • Pappas G , Papadimitriou P , Akritidis N et al. The new global map of human brucellosis. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 6(2), 91–99 (2006).
  • Naderi H , Sheybani F , Parsa A et al. Neurobrucellosis: report of 54 cases. Tropical Medicine and Health 50(1), 1–6 (2022).
  • Piroozi B , Moradi G , Safari H et al. Incidence, mortality, and burden of human brucellosis and its geographical distribution in Iran during 2009–2015. Iranian Journal of Public Health 48(Suppl. 1), 20–27 (2019).
  • Turgut M , Haddad FS , De Divitiis O . Neurobrucellosis: Clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic features. Springer (2015).
  • Buzgan T , Karahocagil MK , Irmak H et al. Clinical manifestations and complications in 1028 cases of brucellosis: a retrospective evaluation and review of the literature. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 14(6), e469–e478 (2010).
  • Gul HC , Erdem H , Bek S . Overview of neurobrucellosis: a pooled analysis of 187 cases. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 13(6), e339–e343 (2009).
  • Mandell G , Raphael D , John B . Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s principles and practice of infectious diseases (9th ed.). Elsevier (2019).
  • Hatami H , Hatami M , Soori H et al. Epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory features of brucellar meningitis. Archives of Iranian Medicine 13(6), 486–491 (2010).
  • Asadipooya K , Dehghanian A , Omrani GH et al. Short-course treatment in neurobrucellosis: a study in Iran. Neurology India 59(1), 101–103 (2011).
  • Ranjbar M , Rezaiee AA , Hashemi SH et al. Neurobrucellosis: report of a rare disease in 20 Iranian patients referred to a tertiary hospital. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal = La revue de sante de la Mediterranee orientale = al-Majallah al-sihhiyah li-sharq al-mutawassit 15(1), 143–148 (2009).
  • Ayatollahi J . Epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic survey of 686 cases of brucellosis. Annals of Saudi Medicine 24(5), 398–399 (2004).
  • Roushan MH , Mohrez M , Gangi SS et al. Epidemiological features and clinical manifestations in 469 adult patients with brucellosis in Babol, Northern Iran. Epidemiology & Infection 132(6), 1109–1114 (2004).
  • Karsen H , Tekin Koruk S , Duygu F et al. Review of 17 cases of neurobrucellosis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management. Archives of Iranian Medicine 15(8), 491–494 (2012).
  • Haji-Abdolbagi M , Rasooli-Nejad M , Jafari S et al. Clinical and laboratory findings in neurobrucellosis: review of 31 cases. Archives of Iranian Medicine 11(1), 21–25 (2008).
  • Naderi HR . Brucellar Psychosis. Neurobrucellosis. Springer, 69–79 (2016).
  • Bidaki R , Yassini S , Maymand M et al. Acute psychosis due to brucellosis in a rural Iran: a report of two cases. International Journal of Infection and Microbiology 2(1), 29–31 (2013).
  • Tonekaboni SH , Karimi A , Armin S et al. Neurobrucellosis: a partially treatable cause of vision loss. Pediatr. Neurol. 40(5), 401–403 (2009).
  • Faraji F , Didgar F , Talaie-Zanjani A et al. Uncontrolled seizures resulting from cerebral venous sinus thrombosis complicating neurobrucellosis. Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice 4(03), 313–316 (2013).
  • Montazeri M , Sadeghi K , Khalili H et al. Fever and psychosis as an early presentation of Brucella-associated meningoencephalitis: a case report. Medical Principles and Practice: international Journal of the Kuwait University, Health Science Centre 22(5), 506–509 (2013).
  • Sheybani F , Sarvghad MR , Bojdi A et al. Brief Report: Brucellar Psychosis. Archives of Iranian Medicine 15(11), 723–725 (2012).
  • Dadar M , Alamian S , Behrozikhah AM et al.et al. ( Eds). Molecular identification of Brucella species and biovars associated with animal and human infection in Iran. Veterinary research forum. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran (2019).
  • Koopmans MM , Bijlsma MW , Brouwer MC et al. Listeria monocytogenes meningitis in the Netherlands, 1985–2014: a nationwide surveillance study. The Journal of Infection 75(1), 12–19 (2017).
  • Zahedi Bialvaei A , Sheikhalizadeh V , Mojtahedi A et al. Epidemiological burden of Listeria monocytogenes in Iran. Iran J. Basic Med. Sci. 21(8), 770–780 (2018).
  • Bazooyar B . Rhombencephalitis by Listeria Monocytogenes in Two Diabetic Patients. Archives of Iranian Medicine 18(9), 613–615 (2015).
  • Spelman D . Microbiology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of nocardiosis (2021). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/microbiology-epidemiology-and-pathogenesis-of-nocardiosis?search=NOCARDIA&source=search_result&selectedTitle=2∼94&usage_type=default&display_rank=2#H2
  • Hashemzadeh M , Dezfuli AAZ , Khosravi AD et al. Genotypic and phenotypic prevalence of Nocardia species in Iran: first systematic review and meta-analysis of data accumulated over years 1992–2021. PLOS ONE 16(7), e0254840 (2021).
  • Marra CM . Neurosyphilis (2022). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/neurosyphilis?search=neurosyphilis&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1∼71&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • Marra CM . Neurosyphilis (2022). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/neurosyphilis?search=neurosyphilis&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1∼70&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • Jahanbakhsh F , Bagheri Amiri F , Sedaghat A et al. Prevalence of HAV Ab, HEV (IgG), HSV2 IgG, and Syphilis Among Sheltered Homeless Adults in Tehran, 2012. Int. J. Health Policy Manag. 7(3), 225–230 (2018).
  • Ghorashi Z . Sexually transmitted infections in Iran: a literature review. Journal of Occupational Health and Epidemiology 4, 260–265 (2015).
  • Janghorban R . An overview on sexually transmitted infections in Iran. International Journal of Reproduction, Contraception, Obstetrics and Gynecology 5, 585–595 (2016).
  • Khodabandeh M , Borhani K , Eshaghi H et al. Neurosyphilis with Hydrocephalus: A Case Report. Case Reports in Clinical Practice 2(4), 98–102 (2017).
  • Cadavid D , Barbour AG . Neuroborreliosis during relapsing fever: review of the clinical manifestations, pathology, and treatment of infections in humans and experimental animals. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26(1), 151–164 (1998).
  • Assous M , Wilamowski A . Relapsing fever borreliosis in Eurasia—forgotten, but certainly not gone! Clinical Microbiology and Infection 15(5), 407–414 (2009).
  • Assmar M , Soleimani M , Oreiz F et al. Purification of periplasmic flagellar antigen from Borrelia microtti. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 34(4), 267–272 (2002).
  • Masoumi Asl H , Goya MM , Vatandoost H et al. The epidemiology of tick-borne relapsing fever in Iran during 1997–2006. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 7(3), 160–164 (2009).
  • Majid-Pour A . A case of Borrelia meningitis. Arch of Iranian Med. 6(3), 222–223 (2003).
  • Masuzawa T . Terrestrial distribution of the Lyme borreliosis agent Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in East Asia. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases 57(6), 229–235 (2004).
  • Koedel U , Fingerle V , Pfister H-W . Lyme neuroborreliosis—epidemiology, diagnosis and management. Nature Reviews Neurology 11(8), 446–456 (2015).
  • Adabi M , Rahmani Firouzjaei A , Ghasemi M . Report of A Case of Lyme Disease in Mazandaran. Iranian Journal of Dermatology 8(Suppl. 1), (2004).
  • Siadati PTA . A case of Lyme disease (Lyme Borreliosis). Acta Medica Iranica 4(3), 222–4 (2006).
  • Chams-Davatchi C . The First Endemic Case of Lyme Borreliosis in Iran. Medical Journal of The Islamic Republic of Iran (MJIRI) 11(3), 237–239 (1997).
  • Haake DA , Levett PN . Leptospirosis in humans. Leptospira and Leptospirosis 387, 65–97 (2015).
  • Day N . Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis (2022). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/leptospirosis-epidemiology-microbiology-clinical-manifestations-and-diagnosis?search=leptospirosis&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1∼84&usage_type=default&display_rank=1#H6605847
  • Moradi G , Asl HM , Bahmani N et al. Epidemiology incidence and geographical distribution of leptospirosis using GIS and its incidence prediction in Iran in 2021. Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran 35, 109 (2021).
  • Khalili M , Sakhaee E , Bagheri Amiri F et al. Serological evidence of leptospirosis in Iran; A systematic review and meta-analysis. Microb. Pathog. 138, 103833 (2020).
  • Kheir A , Nabavi M , Tahaminia M . Rate of leptospiral meningitis and meningoencephalitis in Tehran. Iranian Journal of Clinical Infectious Diseases 4(4), 233–236 (2009).
  • Babamahmoodi F , Babamhmoodi A . Recovery from Intracranial Hemorrhage Due to Leptospirosis. Case Reports in Medicine 2011, 504308 (2011).
  • Góralska K , Blaszkowska J , Dzikowiec M . Neuroinfections caused by fungi. Infection 46, 443–459 (2018).
  • Williamson PR , Jarvis JN , Panackal AA et al. Cryptococcal meningitis: epidemiology, immunology, diagnosis and therapy. Nature Reviews Neurology 13(1), 13–24 (2017).
  • Cox GM , Perfect JR . Microbiology and epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans infection (2022). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/microbiology-and-epidemiology-of-cryptococcus-neoformans-infection?search=cryptococcosis&source=search_result&selectedTitle=2∼150&usage_type=default&display_rank=2
  • Pappas PG , Perfect JR , Cloud GA et al. Cryptococcosis in human immunodeficiency virus-negative patients in the era of effective azole therapy. Clinical Infectious Diseases: an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 33(5), 690–699 (2001).
  • Bandalizadeh Z , Hosseini SA , Moosazadeh M et al. Cryptococcus and cryptococcosis in Iran during 1969–2019: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal de Mycologie Medicale 30(1), 100917 (2019).
  • Ghasemian R , Najafi N , Shokohi T . Cryptococcal meningitis relapse in an immunocompetent patient. Archives of Clinical Infectious Diseases 6(1), 51–55 (2011).
  • Razin B , Shoaei S-D , Family A et al. PP-204 Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Cryptococcus neoformans coinfection meningitis in a young immunocompetent woman. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 15, S101 (2011).
  • Nabaei G , Afhami S . Disseminated cryptococcosis and active pulmonary tuberculosis co-infection in an otherwise healthy adult. Iranian Journal of Neurology 14(3), 174 (2015).
  • Badali H , Alian S , Fakhim H et al. Cryptococcal meningitis due to Cryptococcus neoformans genotype AFLP 1/VNI in Iran: a review of the literature. Mycoses 58(12), 689–693 (2015).
  • Nakhayi AR , Eftekhaari TE , Montazerghaem H et al. A 28years old woman with severe headache and few episodes of vomiting: a case report. American Journal of Infectious Diseases 6(4), 107 (2010).
  • Sasan MS , Donyadideh N , Alborzi A . A case report of cryptococcal meningitis. Medical Journal of Mashhad University of Medical Sciences 55(3), 190–194 (2012).
  • Siroos B , Ahmadinejad Z , Tabaeizadeh M et al. Rare association of severe cryptococcal and tuberculosis in central nervous system in a case of sarcoidosis. Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran 28(1), 22 (2014).
  • Khodadoust AA , Payne JW . Cryptococcal (torular) retinitis. A clinicopathologic case report. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 67(5), 745–750 (1969).
  • Haghighi S , Ahadi MS , Moghadasi AN . Cryptococcal meningitis in a human immunodeficiency virus-negative patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Iranian Journal of Neurology 15(2), 106 (2016).
  • Bassiri Jahromi S , Khaksar AA . Deep-Seated Fungal Infections in Immunocompromised Patients in Iran before and after Treatments. Iranian Journal of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology 4(1), 27–32 (2005).
  • Aghazadeh K , Nadji SA , Shokouhi S et al. Concurrent presence of cryptococcal meningitis and neoplastic meningitis in a recipient of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a case report. Crescent Journal of Medical and Biological Sciences 3(2), 45–50 (2016).
  • Amanati A , Lotfi M , Masoudi MS et al. Cerebral and pulmonary aspergillosis, treatment and diagnostic challenges of mixed breakthrough invasive fungal infections: case report study. BMC Infectious Diseases 20(1), 1–7 (2020).
  • Mamishi S , Parvaneh N , Salavati A et al. Invasive aspergillosis in chronic granulomatous disease: report of 7 cases. Eur. J. Pediatr. 166(1), 83–84 (2007).
  • Azarpira N , Esfandiari M , Bagheri MH et al. Cerebral aspergillosis presenting as a mass lesion. Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases 12(4), 349–351 (2008).
  • Bassiri-Jahromi S . A retrospective study of the risk factors for invasive Aspergillosis in Iran. Virol Mycol. 2(1), 2161–0517 (2013).
  • Safavi M , Mehdizadeh M , Habibi Z et al. Cerebral Aspergillosis. Archives of Iranian Medicine 22(8), 476–477 (2019).
  • Petramfar P , Yousefian M , Ashraf MH et al. Meningoencephalitis with Aspergillus and mycobacterium tuberculosis in a renal transplant recipient. Experimental and clinical Transplantation: Official Journal of the Middle East Society for Organ Transplantation 9(1), 68–71 (2011).
  • Badiee P , Alborzi A , Malekhosseini SA et al. Determining the incidence of aspergillosis after liver transplant. Experimental and Clinical Transplantation: Official Journal of the Middle East Society for Organ Transplantation 8(3), 220–223 (2010).
  • Amanati A , Lotfi M , Masoudi MS et al. Cerebral and pulmonary aspergillosis, treatment and diagnostic challenges of mixed breakthrough invasive fungal infections: case report study. BMC Infectious Diseases 20(1), 535 (2020).
  • Góralska K , Blaszkowska J , Dzikowiec M . Neuroinfections caused by fungi. Infection 46(4), 443–459 (2018).
  • Cox G , Kauffman C , Bond S . Mucormycosis (zygomycosis) (2021). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/mucormycosis-zygomycosis.
  • Nagy-Agren SE , Chu P , Smith GJ et al. Zygomycosis (mucormycosis) and HIV infection: report of three cases and review. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology: Official Publication of the International Retrovirology Association 10(4), 441–449 (1995).
  • Vaezi A , Moazeni M , Rahimi MT et al. Mucormycosis in Iran: a systematic review. Mycoses 59(7), 402–415 (2016).
  • Dolatabadi S , Ahmadi B , Rezaei-Matehkolaei A et al. Mucormycosis in Iran: a six-year retrospective experience. Journal de Mycologie Medicale 28(2), 269–273 (2018).
  • Einollahi B , Lessan-Pezeshki M , Aslani J et al. Two decades of experience in mucormycosis after kidney transplantation. Annals of Transplantation 16(3), 44–48 (2011).
  • Kashkouli MB , Abdolalizadeh P , Oghazian M et al. Outcomes and factors affecting them in patients with rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis. The British Journal of Ophthalmology 103(10), 1460–1465 (2019).
  • Nezafati S , Kazemi A , Asgari K et al. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis, risk factors and the type of oral manifestations in patients referred to a University Hospital in Tabriz, Iran 2007–2017. Mycoses 61(10), 764–769 (2018).
  • Samarei R , Gharebaghi N , Zayer S . Evaluation of 30 cases of mucormycosis at a university hospital in Iran. Mycoses 60(7), 426–432 (2017).
  • Sanavi S , Afshar R , Afshin-Majd S . Rhino-orbitocerebral mucormycosis in a patient with idiopathic crescentic glomerulonephritis. Saudi Journal of Kidney Diseases and Transplantation: An Official Publication of the Saudi Center for Organ Transplantation, Saudi Arabia 24(4), 768–772 (2013).
  • Cox GM , Kauffman CA . Central nervous system infections due to dematiaceous fungi (cerebral phaeohyphomycosis) (2021). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/central-nervous-system-infections-due-to-dematiaceous-fungi-cerebral-phaeohyphomycosis?search=Central%20nervous%20system%20infections%20due%20to%20dematiaceous%20fungi%20(cerebral%20phaeohyphomycosis)&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1~150&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • Revankar SG , Sutton DA , Rinaldi MG . Primary central nervous system phaeohyphomycosis: a review of 101 cases. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 38(2), 206–216 (2004).
  • Geramishoar M , Zomorodian K , Zaini F et al. First case of cerebral phaeohyphomycosis caused by Nattrassia mangiferae in Iran. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases 57(6), 285–286 (2004).
  • Badali H , Chander J , Gupta A et al. Fatal cerebral phaeohyphomycosis in an immunocompetent individual due to Thielavia subthermophila. J. Clin. Microbiol. 49(6), 2336–2341 (2011).
  • Didehdar M , Gokanian A , Sofian M et al. First fatal cerebral phaeohyphomycosis due to Rhinocladiella mackenziei in Iran, based on ITS rDNA. Journal de Mycologie Medicale 25(1), 81–86 (2015).
  • Saberi H , Kashfi A , Hamidi S et al. Cerebral phaeohyphomycosis masquerading as a parafalcian mass: case report. Surg. Neurol. 60(4), 354–9; discussion 9 (2003).
  • Bassiri Jahromi S , Khaksar AA . Deep-seated fungal infections in immunocompromised patients in iran. Iranian Journal of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology 4(1), 27–32 (2005).
  • Basiri K , Meidani M , Rezaie F et al. A rare case of Trichosporon brain abscess, successfully treated with surgical excision and antifungal agents. Neurologia i Neurochirurgia Polska 46(1), 92–95 (2012).
  • Padayachy LC , Dattatraya M . Hydatid disease (Echinococcus) of the central nervous system. Childs Nerv. Syst. 34(10), 1967–1971 (2018).
  • Carpio A , Romo ML , Parkhouse R et al. Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system: lessons for clinicians and policy makers. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 16(4), 401–414 (2016).
  • Carpio A . Neurocysticercosis: an update. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2(12), 751–762 (2002).
  • Bizhani N , Hashemi Hafshejani S , Mohammadi N et al. Human Cysticercosis in Asia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Iranian Journal of Public Health 49(10), 1839–1847 (2020).
  • Farahani ZK , Moradi A , Sedighi A et al. Neurocysticercosis in Iran: An Unexpected Case and Literature Review. Neuroscience and Medicine 04(04), 5 (2013).
  • Moazeni M , Khamesipour F , Anyona DN et al. Epidemiology of taeniosis, cysticercosis and trichinellosis in Iran: a systematic review. Zoonoses and Public Health 66(1), 140–154 (2019).
  • Moro P , Weller P , Baron EL . Epidemiology and control of echinococcosis (2020). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-and-control-of-echinococcosis?search=Clinical%20manifestations%20and%20diagnosis%20of%20cystic%20and%20alveolar%20echinococcosis&source=search_result&selectedTitle=2∼150&usage_type=default&display_rank=2
  • Mahmoudi S , Mamishi S , Banar M et al. Epidemiology of echinococcosis in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infectious Diseases 19(1), 929 (2019).
  • Fasihi Harandi M , Budke CM , Rostami S . The monetary burden of cystic echinococcosis in Iran. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6(11), e1915 (2012).
  • Nourjah N , Sahba G , Baniardalani M et al. Study of 4850 operated hydatidosis cases in Iran. The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 35(1), 218–222 (2004).
  • Varo R , Crowley VM , Sitoe A et al. Adjunctive therapy for severe malaria: a review and critical appraisal. Malar J. 17(1), 47 (2018).
  • Postels DG , Birbeck GL . Cerebral malaria. Handbook of Clinical Neurology 114, 91–102 (2013).
  • Vatandoost H , Raeisi A , Saghafipour A et al. Malaria situation in Iran: 2002–2017. Malar J. 18(1), 200 (2019).
  • Vatandoost H , Raeisi A , Saghafipour A et al. Malaria situation in Iran: 2002–2017. Malar J. 18(1), 200 (2019).
  • Azizi H , Davtalab-Esmaeili E , Farahbakhsh M et al. Malaria situation in a clear area of Iran: an approach for the better understanding of the health service providers’ readiness and challenges for malaria elimination in clear areas. Malaria Journal 19(1), 114 (2020).
  • Ziaee M , Abedi F . Severe falciparum malaria in iran: a very rare case from an endemic region. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology 7(1), e8752 (2014).
  • Solimani GR , Keshavarz K . Cerebral Malaria in Children: A Case Report. Iranian Journal of Pediatrics 14(2), 163–166 (2004).
  • Elsheikha HM , Marra CM , Zhu X-Q . Epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of cerebral toxoplasmosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 34(1), e00115–00119 (2020).
  • Daryani A , Sarvi S , Aarabi M et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in the Iranian general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Tropica 137, 185–194 (2014).
  • Ahmadpour E , Daryani A , Sharif M et al. Toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 8(12), 1503–1510 (2014).
  • Sharifi-Mood B , Alavi-Naini R , Salehi M et al. Spectrum of clinical disease in a series of hospitalized HIV-infected patients from southeast of Iran. Saudi Medical Journal 27(9), 1362–1366 (2006).
  • Mohraz M , Jozani ZB , Behtaj M et al. Neurological manifestations in HIV positive patients in Tehran, Iran. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease 4, S481–S485 (2014).
  • Abbasian L , Hashemi H , Zali A et al. Incidence and Properties of Neurologic Disorders Recovered from Iranian Patients with HIV Infection: A Case Series. Archives of Neuroscience 6(4), e81981 (2019).
  • Boughattas S . Toxoplasma infection and milk consumption: meta-analysis of assumptions and evidences. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 57(13), 2924–2933 (2017).
  • Abbasi Fard S , Khajeh A , Khosravi A et al. Fulminant and Diffuse Cerebral Toxoplasmosis as the First Manifestation of HIV Infection: A Case Presentation and Review of the Literature. Am. J. Case Rep. 21, e919624–e (2020).
  • Abolghasemi H , Shahverdi E , Jafari R et al. Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in Relapsed Hodgkin’s Lymphoma: A Case Report. Iran J. Cancer Prev. 9(4), e5810 (2016).
  • Nguyen L . Amebic Meningoencephalitis. WebMD (2021). https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/996227-overview
  • Nguyen L , Perloff S . Amebic Meningoencephalitis. Medscape Publishers’ circle (2016). https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/996227-overview#a4
  • Niyyati M , Karamati SA , Lorenzo Morales J et al. Isolation of Balamuthia mandrillaris from soil samples in North-Western Iran. Parasitol. Res. 115(2), 541–545 (2016).
  • Badirzadeh A , Niyyati M , Babaei Z et al. Isolation of free-living amoebae from sarein hot springs in ardebil province, iran. Iranian Journal of Parasitology 6(2), 1 (2011).
  • Binesh F , Karimi M , Navabii H . Unexpected postmortem diagnosis of Acanthamoeba meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent child. Case Reports 2011, bcr0320113954 (2011).
  • Movahedi Z , Shokrollahi MR , Aghaali M et al. Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis in an Iranian infant. Case Reports in Medicine 2012, (2012).
  • Binesh F , Karimi M , Navabii H . Unexpected postmortem diagnosis of acanthamoeba meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent child. BMJ Case Reports 2011, (2011).
  • Movahedi Z , Shokrollahi MR , Aghaali M et al. Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis in an Iranian infant. Case Rep. Med. 2012, 782854 (2012).
  • Abbaszadeh Afshar MJ , Zahabiun F , Heydarian P et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of toxocariasis in Iran: is it time to take it seriously? Acta Parasitologica 65(3), 569–584 (2020).
  • World Health Organization . Schistosomiasis. World Health Organization (2022). www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis
  • Haghighi L , Akbaribazm M , Arab-Mazar Z et al. Vesical schistosomiasis and squamous cell carcinoma associated with schistosoma haematobium: a re-emerging neglected tropical disease in Tehran, Iran. Urology Case Reports 30, 101140 (2020).
  • Khademvatan S , Salmanzadeh S , Foroutan-Rad M et al. Elimination of urogenital schistosomiasis in Iran: past history and the current situation. Parasitology 143(11), 1390–1396 (2016).
  • Chitsulo L , Engels D , Montresor A et al. The global status of schistosomiasis and its control. Acta Tropica 77(1), 41–51 (2000).
  • Alavi SM , Salmanzadeh S . Schistosomiasis in Iran, From the Past Till Elimination 3(3), e60152 (2016).
  • Alavi SM , Salmanzadeh S . Schistosomiasis in Iran, from the past till elimination. Int. J. Infect. 3(3), e36075 (2016).
  • Rose MF , Zimmerman EE , Hsu L et al. Atypical presentation of cerebral schistosomiasis four years after exposure to Schistosoma mansoni. Epilepsy & Behavior Case Reports 2, 80–85 (2014).
  • Chanda K . An overview on the therapeutics of neglected infectious diseases—Leishmaniasis and Chagas diseases. Frontiers in Chemistry 9, 622286 (2021).
  • Petersen CA , Greenlee MHW . Neurologic manifestations of Leishmania spp. Infection. Journal of Neuroparasitology 2, (2011).
  • Llanos-Cuentas A , Valencia BM , Petersen CA . Chapter 13 - Neurological manifestations of human leishmaniasis. In: Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Garcia HH , Tanowitz HB , Del Brutto OH ( Eds). Elsevier, 114: 193–198 (2013).
  • Mohebali M . Visceral leishmaniasis in Iran: review of the epidemiological and clinical features. Iranian Journal of Parasitology 8(3), 348 (2013).
  • Sedaghattalab M , Azizi A . Brain Parenchyma (pons) Involvement by Visceral Leishmaniasis: A Case Report. Iranian Journal of Parasitology 13(1), 145–148 (2018).
  • Moncayo A , Guhl F , Stein C . The Global Burden of Chagas’ Disease in the Year 2000. GBD 2000 Working Paper. World Health Organization, Geneva (2002).
  • Rassi A , de Rezende JM . American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease). Infectious Disease Clinics 26(2), 275–291 (2012).
  • Córdova E , Maiolo E , Corti M et al. Neurological manifestations of Chagas’ disease. Neurol. Res. 32(3), 238–244 (2010).
  • Prusiner SB . Neurodegenerative Diseases and Prions. N. Engl. J. Med. 344(20), 1516–1526 (2001).
  • Appleby BS , Cohen ML . Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (2020). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease?search=prion%20disease&topicRef=5074&source=see_link#H29
  • Hermann P , Appleby B , Brandel J-P et al. Biomarkers and diagnostic guidelines for sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The Lancet Neurology 20(3), 235–246 (2021).
  • Appleby BS , Cohen ML . Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (2020). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/creutzfeldt-jakob-disease?search=Creutzfeldt-Jakob%20disease&source=search_result&selectedTitle=1∼93&usage_type=default&display_rank=1
  • Ritchie DL , Peden AH , Barria MA . Variant CJD: reflections a Quarter of a Century on. Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) 10(11), 1413 (2021).
  • Watson N , Brandel JP , Green A et al. The importance of ongoing international surveillance for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Nature Reviews Neurology 17(6), 362–379 (2021).
  • Coulthart MB , Geschwind MD , Qureshi S et al. A case cluster of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease linked to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Brain: A Journal of Neurology 139(Pt 10), 2609–2616 (2016).
  • Sarraf P , Ghajarzadeh M , Salarian B . Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease: a case report. Acta Medica Iranica 52(6), 488–489 (2014).
  • Masullo C , Brown PW , Macchi G . Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in an Iranian: the first clinico-pathologically described case. Clin. Neuropathol. 15(1), 26–29 (1996).
  • Nikanfar M , Farhoudi M , Halimi M et al. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease presenting with confusion and visual disturbance. Archives of Iranian Medicine 10(3), 397–400 (2007).
  • Sheybani F , van de Beek D , Brouwer MC . Suspected Central Nervous System Infections in HIV-Infected Adults. Front Neurol. 12, 741884 (2021).
  • Boissé L , Gill MJ , Power C . HIV Infection of the Central Nervous System: Clinical Features and Neuropathogenesis. Neurol. Clin. 26(3), 799–819 (2008).
  • Boufassa F , Bachmeyer C , Carré N et al. Influence of neurologic manifestations of primary human immunodeficiency virus infection on disease progression. SEROCO Study Group. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 171(5), 1190–1195 (1995).
  • UNAIDS . Islamic Republic of Iran. UNAIDS (2020). www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/islamicrepublicofiran
  • Wang Y , Liu M , Lu Q et al. Global prevalence and burden of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder. A Meta-Analysis 95(19), e2610–e2621 (2020).
  • Taquet M , Geddes JR , Husain M et al. 6-month neurological and psychiatric outcomes in 236 379 survivors of COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study using electronic health records. The Lancet Psychiatry 8(5), 416–427 (2021).
  • Brueggemann AB , Jansen van Rensburg MJ , Shaw D et al. Changes in the incidence of invasive disease due to Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neisseria meningitidis during the COVID-19 pandemic in 26 countries and territories in the Invasive Respiratory Infection Surveillance Initiative: a prospective analysis of surveillance data. The Lancet Digital Health 3(6), e360–e370 (2021).
  • de Gier B , Marchal N , de Beer-Schuurman I et al. Increase in invasive group A streptococcal (Streptococcus pyogenes) infections (iGAS) in young children in the Netherlands, 2022. Euro Surveillance: Bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles=European Communicable Disease Bulletin 28(1), 2200941 (2023).
  • Nabizadeh F , Balabandian M , Sodeifian F et al. Autoimmune encephalitis associated with COVID-19: a systematic review. Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders 62, 103795 (2022).
  • Saade A , Moratelli G , Azoulay E et al. Herpesvirus reactivation during severe COVID-19 and high rate of immune defect. Infectious Diseases Now. 51(8), 676–679 (2021).
  • Aslan C , Nikfarjam S , Asadzadeh M et al. Neurological manifestations of COVID-19: with emphasis on Iranian patients. J. Neurovirol. 27, 217–227 (2021).
  • Nejad JH , Allahyari F , Hosseinzadeh R et al. Neurological symptoms of COVID-19 infection; a cross-sectional study on hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Iran. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 210, 106985 (2021).
  • Haddad M , Sheybani F , Olfati N et al. Central nervous system reactivation of herpesviridae family in patients with COVID-19. J. Neurovirol. 29(2), 211–217 (2023).
  • Hosseini MJ , Halaji M , Nejad JH et al. Central nervous system vasculopathy associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2): a novel case report from Iran. J. Neurovirol. 27, 507–509 (2021).
  • Communicable disease surveillance systems. World Health Organization (2023). www.emro.who.int/fr/health-topics/health-information-systems/communicable-disease-surveillance-systems.html
  • Dikid T , Jain S , Sharma A et al. Emerging & re-emerging infections in India: an overview. The Indian Journal of Medical Research 138(1), 19 (2013).
  • HabibiSaravi R , Khankeh H , Azar A et al. Research Paper: Communicable Diseases Surveillance System in Iran: Strengths and Weaknesses 30 Years Following its Implementation. Health in Emergencies and Disasters Quarterly 5(1), 25–36 (2019).
  • Turnberg W , Daniell W , Duchin J . Notifiable infectious disease reporting awareness among physicians and registered nurses in primary care and emergency department settings. Am. J. Infect. Control 38(5), 410–412 (2010).
  • Kolahi A-A , Bakhshaei P , Ahmadnia H et al. The Viewpoints of General Practitioners Owning a Private office in North and East of Tehran about Barriers and Problems of Reporting of Communicable Diseases in 2011. Iranian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine 18(62), (2013).
  • Dehcheshmeh NF , Arab M , Foroushani AR et al. Survey of communicable diseases surveillance system in hospitals of Iran: a qualitative approach. Global Journal of Health Science 8(9), 44 (2016).
  • Mouseli A , Amiresmaili M , Barouni M et al. The Challenges and Barriers to the Integration of Laboratory Services in Iran from Laboratory Experts’ Point of View. Iranian Journal of Public Health 47(6), 884 (2018).