The relationships among growth mindset, flow, critically reflective behavior and teacher burnout

ABSTRACT

The study focuses on teachers’ beliefs regarding the malleability of their teaching ability. It examines the relationships among teachers’ growth mindset, flow, critically reflective behavior (CRB) and burnout. Whereas educational studies tend to focus more on teachers’ behaviors rather than on their beliefs and feelings, the current study aims to deepen our understanding of the latter. Responses from 281 teachers to online questionnaires provided support to the majority of the research hypotheses. Teachers with a growth mindset were more likely to experience flow, practice CRB and feel less burnout. Moreover, the relationship between teachers’ growth mindset and burnout was fully mediated by both flow and CRB, and flow partially mediated the growth mindset-CRB relationship. The findings imply that teachers with a growth mindset tend to experience higher levels of flow, practice more CRB and feel less burnout, suggesting that flow and CRB may explain these connections. The study contributes to the literature on teachers’ mindsets and their professional behavior, and offers several implications to the theory and practice of teachers’ professional development.

KEYWORDS:

• Growth mindset
• implicit theories
• flow
• burnout
• critically reflective behavior
• teacher learning

Introduction

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the educational research field of mindsets, also known as implicit theories (Devi & Mishra, 2023; Hertel & Karlen, 2021; Liu, 2021; Scherer & Campos, 2022). Mindsets come in two forms, representing two poles of a continuum, a growth and a fixed mindset. The growth mindset, or the incremental theory of intelligence, assumes that intelligence, personalities and abilities are malleable and can be developed by learning. The fixed mindset, an entity theory of intelligence, presumes that these qualities are static and unalterable (Dweck, 2006; Glerum et al., 2020). Previous studies have found that teachers’ mindsets may be related to various aspects of teaching. For example, teachers’ mindset is related to teaching practices (Jonsson et al., 2012), whereby teachers with growth mindset tend to use teaching practices that focus on understanding and problem-solving more than on performance and correct answers (Oakes et al., 2012). Teachers’ mindsets have implications for their pedagogical practices and for their role in shaping students’ mindsets (e.g., Frondozo et al., 2020; Mesler et al., 2021; Rattan et al., 2012; Rissanen et al., 2019; Yeager et al., 2022).

While the main research interest on mindsets focuses generally on students (e.g., Dupeyrat & Mariné, 2005; Dweck, 2006; King, 2020), the current study concentrates on teachers’ mindset, and aims to examine the relationships among teachers’ growth mindset, their professional behavior and their experiences. Furthermore, whereas educational studies tend to focus more on teachers’ behaviors rather than on their beliefs and feelings (Kroeper et al., 2022), this study aims to deepen our understanding of the latter. It is assumed that teachers’ psychological assets have an impact on their experiences and professional work (Larrivee, 2000). Thus, addressing teachers’ perceptions can better explain their behaviors in the professional context.

The purpose of the current study is, therefore, to improve our understanding of the relationships among teachers’ perceptions, experiences and behaviors regarding their professional work. It aims to do so by diverting the spotlight of teachers’ professional development from the mere engagement in learning activities to addressing teachers’ internal beliefs, and shedding light on the latter’s relevance to educational theory and practice. These beliefs are represented in the current study by mindsets, along with two relatively opposed constructs that represent teachers’ experiences, flow and burnout.

Theoretical framework

Growth mindset

Mindsets refer to individuals’ perceptions about characteristics such as intelligence and personality (Caniëls et al., 2018; Dweck, 1986, 2006). Based on decades of research, Dweck (2000) has shown that some people believe that skills and abilities are fundamentally innate and permanent, whereas others maintain that with effort and training talents or skills in a particular area can be dramatically improved. These two distinct approaches are referred to as fixed mindset or entity theory and growth mindset or incremental theory, respectively.

Growth mindset has been consistently associated with higher levels of resilience, active coping and more efficient responses to stress, difficulty and setbacks (Burnette et al., 2020; Yeager & Dweck, 2020; Yeager et al., 2016). The assumption that basic qualities can be developed is thought to foster hope and to constructively direct one’s efforts to anticipate and work toward a better future (Dweck & Yeager, 2018).

Within the educational realm, growth mindset is correlated with perseverance (Bettinger et al., 2018), challenge seeking (Dweck & Yeager, 2019), academic self efficacy (Zander et al., 2018) and achievements (Claro et al., 2016; McCabe et al., 2020). Teachers with a growth mindset tend to establish an autonomy-supportive climate in the classroom (Tao et al., 2021) and eventually stimulate higher levels of motivation for achievement for their students (Oakes et al., 2012; Rattan et al., 2012). Moreover, teachers who hold a growth mindset have a more prominent tendency toward professional learning activities (Gero, 2013).

Growth mindset and flow

Flow describes an optimal state of engagement in a given activity, characterized by sensing internal motivation, involvement and enjoyment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The term originally focused on a specific experience (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 2014), but over time, it has expanded to describe a continuous state, including at work (WOLF: Work-reLated Flow; Bakker, 2008).

The Job demands-resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) is an occupational stress model that deals with the imbalance between the demands put on the individual and the resources that this individual has to deal with it, which may lead to stress. The model asserts that each job poses certain physical, psychological, social and organizational demands on the individual, and suggests that resources such as autonomy, coaching and career opportunities may assist the individual to cope with these demands. While job demands may cause exhaustion and strain, job resources may lead to engagement and well-being (Bakker et al., 2003). The JD-R model thus explains flow as the product of a motivational process: Given the appropriate resources, the individual will be highly engaged, committed and motivated. Indeed, resources such as job variety and autonomy have been found to strengthen teachers’ job-related flow (Habe & Tement, 2016; Hakanen et al., 2006), and teachers’ flow was found related to both organizational resources such as social support and innovation, and personal resources like self-efficacy (Salanova et al., 2006).

While a connection between individuals’ perceptions, beliefs and feelings was previously established (Dweck, 2017), addressing mindset and flow together is novel in educational research. In an Israeli qualitative study (Zilka et al., 2022), teachers with growth mindset were perceived to enjoy their work and be more engaged and committed, thus positioning flow as one of the main expressions of teachers’ growth mindset. A Chinese study (Zeng et al., 2019) showed that teachers with growth mindset were also more engaged at work. Thus, based on the motivational process of the JD-R model, a growth mindset can be viewed as a meaningful psychological resource that may help teachers to cope with stress and other job demands, and eventually improve their well-being.

Growth mindset and burnout

Burnout describes a state where an individual lacks mental, emotional, cognitive and physical resources (Freudenberger, 1974). This feeling is experienced as a combination of physical exhaustion, lack of fulfillment and depersonalization (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). The JD-R model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007, 2017) portrays burnout as the product of an energetic process, parallel to the motivational process of flow. In this energetic process, the numerous job demands deplete the worker’s resources, including time, health, vitality and motivation, and the worker may thus sense exhaustion and burnout. Burnout and flow – job resources – are known to be negatively related (Crawford et al., 2010; Van Ittersum, 2015). Thus, a negative job resource as burnout may either be enhanced when posing complexity, danger and stress, or reduced when providing knowledge, autonomy and support (Crawford et al., 2010).

Burnout is found mostly among caregivers, including teachers (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010), and is related to both external and internal factors. Prominent external factors are time pressure, discipline, lack of autonomy (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2014) and supervisor’s support (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010), whereas internal factors are mainly low self-efficacy (Ghanizadeh & Jahedizadeh, 2015; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010), external locus of control (Mazur & Lynch, 1989) and low levels of job-satisfaction (Parker et al., 2012). Teachers who are more open toward experiences (Unaldi et al., 2013), follow learning goals (Retelsdorf et al., 2010) and engage in reflective dialogue with their colleagues (Lim & Eo, 2014) are less prone to experience burnout.

Students’ behavior is also associated with teacher burnout (Fernet et al., 2012), as are students’ asocial behavior and disrespect (Hastings & Bham, 2003). Finally, some contextual school factors may affect teacher burnout, among which are shared decision-making (Betoret & Artiga, 2010), autonomy levels (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2014) and principal leadership style (Hocine & Zhang, 2014).

Based on the JD-R model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007, 2017), teachers’ growth mindset is a resource that helps teachers to cope with job demands and increase their well-being. Indeed, lower levels of burnout are found among teachers with growth mindset regarding their students’ learning abilities (Williams, 2012) as well as teachers maintaining learning goals (Parker et al., 2012; Retelsdorf et al., 2010).

The negative relationship between flow and burnout is well established in the literature (Crawford et al., 2010; Van Ittersum, 2015). This connection implies that the motivational and energetic processes of the JD-R model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007, 2017) are interdependent. An individual who senses inner motivation and flow is less likely to experience burnout (Van Ittersum, 2015); concurrently, the drive for work may help the teacher to better cope with burnout (Parker et al., 2012).

Growth mindset and critically reflective behavior (CRB)

Since professional learning activities performed by teachers may also be affected by teachers’ perceptions (Admiraal et al., 2021; Kwakman, 2003), and were found to be possibly related to their feelings either by inhibiting burnout (Lim & Eo, 2014) or by enhancing flow (Zilka et al., 2022). Thus, growth mindset is also expected to relate to teachers’ professional activity. Critically Reflective Behavior (CRB; van Woerkom & Croon, 2008) is defined as “a set of connected activities carried out individually or in interaction with others, aimed at optimizing individual or collective practices, or critically analyzing and trying to change organizational or individual values” (van Woerkom & Croon, 2008). CRB at work is comprised of six dimensions: critical opinion-sharing, asking for feedback, challenging group-think, openness about mistakes, experimentation and career awareness (van Woerkom & Croon, 2008).

CRB may be affected by personal factors like professional attitudes and low levels of burnout (Kwakman, 2003), or external factors such as school climate, principals’ leadership style, autonomy (Evers et al., 2011) and work pressure (Evers et al., 2016). Moreover, as learning goals represent a prominent personal factor affecting teachers’ willingness to improve (Kunst et al., 2018), and since learning goals have a well-established correlation to growth mindset (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), we can assume that growth mindset is related to CRB. Indeed, teachers’ growth mindset predicts their level of interest in professional development and the nature of the activities in which they participate (Gero, 2013). Teachers with a growth mindset tend to seek more help and guidance (Dweck, 2000), put more effort toward improving their performance (Dupeyrat & Mariné, 2005), and are more willing to receive training and feedback (Stenzel, 2015).

CRB addresses six different behaviors that are rather voluntary, beyond the required formal role-related tasks, and directed toward the improvement of the self, others or the organization (van Woerkom & Croon, 2008). Behaviors identified with CRB have commonalities with Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) (Bakker, 2008; Oplatka, 2009; Organ, 1997), a term that encompasses behaviors that are beyond the formal job description. Oplatka (2006), for example, describes pedagogical and administrative information exchange as well as initiatives inside the classrooms as facets of teacher’s OCB, behaviors that resemble feedback seeking and experimentation, respectively. Previous research on OCB and extra-role behaviors reveals correlations with teachers’ self-fulfillment and job satisfaction (Oplatka, 2009; Somech & Drach-Zahavy, 2000), teachers’ self-efficacy (Bogler & Somech, 2004), teacher empowerment (Ahmed, 2021), and flow (Kasa & Hassan, 2016). These findings, combined with the close relationship of CRB to OCB, imply a possible theoretical connection between CRB and flow.

Teachers who engage in reflective dialogue with their peers report lower levels of work-related burnout (Lim & Eo, 2014) because in their professional development and critical reflection they retain psychological resources that may help them cope better at work (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Furthermore, emotional exhaustion and lack of fulfillment – two of the burnout factors – are among the personal factors negatively related to teachers’ participation in professional learning activities (Kwakman, 2003).

The mediating role of flow and CRB

The relationship hypothesized between growth mindset and burnout (H2) may also be indirect. Previous studies found that teachers with a growth mindset who put more effort into their professional development (Gero, 2013; Stenzel, 2015) cope better with various teaching challenges and thus feel less burnout. Additionally, teachers with a growth mindset have positive experiences such as flow (Zilka et al., 2022), and may therefore better deal with the lurking burnout.

The positive relationship between teachers’ growth mindset and CRB can be further explained. Teachers’ willingness to participate in professional learning activities is affected by personal factors such as personal accomplishment and lack of emotional exhaustion, and task factors such as job variety and autonomy (Kwakman, 2003). As indicated, teachers with a growth mindset tend to feel more flow in their work. Some of the positive attitudes and inner motivation associated with teachers’ flow are channeled toward teaching improvement, development and professionalism (Bakker, 2008; Kasa & Hassan, 2016). In other words, a reflective behavior of teachers with a growth mindset may be explained as an outcome of their positive experiences and, specifically, with flow.

Control variables

Teaching seniority is used as a control variable in the present study because there may be differences in teachers’ mindsets based on their seniority (Jonsson et al., 2012). Teaching seniority is also negatively related to burnout, such that younger and more novice teachers are prone to experience more burnout and especially exhaustion (Brewer & Shapard, 2004), while older and more experienced teachers may feel lack of fulfillment less than others (Zabel & Kay Zabel, 2001). The importance of teaching seniority within this context may also be drawn from the evidence that teachers’ motivation and job-satisfaction, two of flow’s three factors (Bakker, 2008), are enhanced with age and experience (Bishay, 1996). Additionally, research has shown differences in the operational definition of CRB based on teaching seniority (Evers et al., 2016). Thus, this study recognizes the relevance of teaching seniority to the research model, and it is controlled.

Research model and hypotheses

Based on the aforementioned theoretical framework, the research question was: How do teachers’ growth mindset relate to their feelings and professional behavior?

We pose several hypotheses as follows:

H1:

Teachers’ growth mindset is positively related to teachers’ flow experience.

H2:

Teachers’ growth mindset is negatively related to teachers’ burnout.

H3:

Teachers’ flow is negatively related to teachers’ burnout.

H4:

Teachers’ growth mindset is positively related to teachers’ critically reflective behavior.

H5:

Teachers’ flow is positively related to teachers’ CRB.

H6:

Teachers’ CRB is negatively related to teachers’ burnout.

H7a:

CRB and flow will mediate the negative relation between teachers’ growth mindset and burnout.

H7b:

Flow will mediate the positive relation between teachers’ growth mindset and CRB.

The combination of all research hypotheses suggests an integrative model describing the relationships among teachers’ growth mindset, their professional performance and internal experiences (Figure 1). The research hypotheses are represented in three clusters: direct connections between growth mindset and outcomes (H1, H2, H4); direct connections among outcomes (H3, H5, H6); and mediation hypotheses (H7a, H7b).

Figure 1. Research model.

Method

Sample: The study sample consisted of 281 Israeli teachers (82.8% women) from all school levels (i.e., elementary, middle and high schools) who share similar characteristics to the majority of teachers in Israel (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2018). The average age of the participants was 43.2 years (SD = 11.2), and the average seniority in teaching was 16 years (SD = 10.7). Among the participants, 54.5% had a master’s degree and 35.1% had a bachelor’s degree. Most teachers were either classroom teachers (41.2%) or specific subject teachers (40.5%). All the teachers were Hebrew speakers, including the three teachers from the Arab schools.

Procedure: Data collection was handled via online questionnaires using Google Forms. The questionnaires were distributed by the first author’s social media networks using non-probability snowball sampling, in an effort to reach a diverse sample. Anonymity was guaranteed by built-in protection using Google Forms.

Measures: The teachers filled out online anonymous self-report questionnaires that assessed their mindsets regarding both intelligence and their own teaching ability, as well as flow, CRB and burnout. Teachers also provided demographic data. All scales were measured using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Growth mindset was measured in two parallel ways. First, we used four items from TIS (Theories of Intelligence Scale; Dweck, 2000) that represent the factor of growth mindset regarding general intelligence. A sample item is “You can always substantially change how intelligent you are” (α = .96). Second, we used four additional, revised items that refer to self-theory growth mindset regarding teaching ability. The idea of directing the original TIS to a specific population is not novel (e.g., Fang, 2017; Gero, 2013; Rattan et al., 2012). A sample item is “I believe I can always improve my teaching abilities significantly” (α = .93).

Flow was measured by a 10-item scale (Rheinberg et al., 2003). A sample item is “I am completely immersed in what I do” (α = .81).

Critically reflective behavior is traditionally measured using a scale of six factors (van Woerkom & Croon, 2008), from which only four factors were relevant to the current study: critical opinion-sharing (six items, sample item: “I come up with ideas how things could be organized differently here,” α = .83), openness about mistakes (seven items, sample item: “I do not mind making mistakes,” α = .77), asking for feedback (nine items, sample item: “I ask my colleagues for feedback,” α = .85) and experimentation (three items, sample item: “I love to try things out, even if it sometimes leads nowhere,” α = .80). Since reliability level of less than 0.7 was initially found in “openness about mistakes,” one item (“I don’t mind doing mistakes”) was excluded, resulting in the aforementioned reliability of this factor (α = .77) and a total of α = .87 for the entire scale. Because there is no Hebrew version for this scale, it was translated and validated as part of this study, using a standard back-translation process (Brislin, 1970) involving all three authors, who are experts in the measured construct, and are familiar with the cultural group being tested: the English version was translated to Hebrew by one scholar, back to English by another, then compared to the original version by a third scholar, resulting in incorporating minor changes in the wording due to the translation process. This method is standard for cross-cultural research (Cha et al., 2007).

Burnout was measured by a scale that consists of three factors (Friedman, 1999): emotional exhaustion (five items, a sample item: “I feel completely drained from teaching,” α = .92), lack of fulfillment (five items, a sample item: “I feel like my expectations from teachings are not fulfilled,” α = .83) and depersonalization (four items, a sample item: “I feel like my students are not so eager to learn,” α = .87). This scale was originally constructed and validated for Israeli educators, in Hebrew, with a total reliability of α = .89.

Results

Descriptive statistics

Means, standard deviations and intercorrelations for the study variables are shown in Table 1. Significant correlations were found among most of the research variables, where teachers’ growth mindset was found to be positively correlated with CRB (r = .29, p < .001) and flow (r = .18, p < .01). However, no significant correlation was found between teachers’ growth mindset and burnout (r = -.07, p > .05). With regard to demographic data, we found a negative significant correlation between teachers’ growth mindset and each of the variables, teachers’ age (r = -.29, p < .001) and seniority (r = -36, p < .001), meaning that younger and more novice teachers were more likely to adopt growth mindset. These teachers were also found to be more apt to feel burnout, as negative correlations were noted among burnout and both age (r = -.18, p < .01) and teaching seniority (r = -.17, p < .01). Conversely, flow was found positively correlated with teachers’ age (r = .23, p < .01) and seniority (r = .22, p < .01). To summarize, younger and novice teachers were likely to feel more burnout and less flow, in addition to adopting growth mindset.

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among study variables.

Variable	Mean	SD	2	3	4	5	6
1. Age	43.16	11.16	.82***	−.29***	.07	.23**	−.18**
2. Teaching Seniority	15.96	10.72		−.36***	.02	.22**	−.17**
3. Growth Mindset	5.67	1.12			.29***	.18***	−.07
4. CRB	4.75	.81				.31***	−.24***
5. Flow	4.85	.85					−.28***
6. Burnout	3.01	1.09

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001. CRB, critically reflective behavior.

Hypotheses testing

We present each of the research hypotheses and the related findings, with teaching seniority as a control variable. In accordance with the research hypotheses, we found a significant relationship among teachers’ mindsets regarding their teaching ability and their CRB (B = .25, t = 5.61, p < .001), burnout (B = -.14, t = -2.34, p < .05) and flow (B = .23, t = 4.99, p < .001). In other words, teachers who held a growth mindset regarding their teaching ability tended to be critically reflective as part of their work, feel less burnout and experience more flow. Thus, hypotheses H1, H2 and H4, respectively, were confirmed.

Significant relationships were also found among other research variables as follows: CRB and burnout (B = -.18, t = -4.10, p < .001), flow and burnout (B = -.19, t = -4.32, p < .001), and flow and CRB (B = .33, t = 5.57, p < .001). Thus, H3, H5 and H6 were confirmed, meaning that teachers who experienced more flow tended to be more critically reflective and felt less burnout (Figure 2).

Figure 2. The hypothesized mediated model.

*p < .05; ***p < .001.

To test the mediation hypothesis H7a, we used model 6 in PROCESS (Hayes, 2017) with two mediators. The model (Table 2) was found significant [F(4,274) = 9.24, p < .001] and explained about 9% of the burnout variance. The mediation analysis, based on bootstrapping, supported the hypothesis (ab = -.11, SE = .03, CI 95% [−.17, −.06], p < .01).

Table 2. Mediation effect of flow and critically-reflective behavior on the relationship between growth mindset and burnout (H7a).

	B	SE	t	p
Growth mindset – flow (a1)	.23	.05	4.99	.00
Flow – burnout (b1)	−.24	.08	−3.04	.01
Growth mindset – CRB (a2)	.19	.04	4.31	.00
CRB – burnout (b2)	−.23	.08	−2.71	.01
Growth mindset – burnout (mediated) (c)	−.14	.06	−2.34	.02
Growth mindset – burnout (direct) (c’)	−.03	.06	−0.50	.62
			Bootstrapping CI 95%
	B	SE	Lower bound	Upper bound
Mediation of flow and critically-reflective behavior (ab)	−.11	.03	−.17	−.06

*CI = Confidence Interval.

CRB, critically reflective behavior.

To test the mediation hypothesis H7b, we used model 4 in PROCESS (Hayes, 2017). The model (Table 3) was found significant [F(3,275) = 17.26, p < .001], and explained 17% of CRB variance. The mediation analysis, based on bootstrapping, supported the hypothesis (ab = .08, SE = .02, CI 95% [.03, .12], p < .001).

Table 3. Mediation effect of flow on the relationship between growth mindset and critically-reflective behavior (H7b).

	B	SE	t	p
Growth mindset – flow (a)	.23	.05	4.99	.00
Flow – CRB (b)	−.24	.08	−3.04	.01
Growth mindset – CRB (mediated) (c)	.25	.06	5.61	.00
Growth mindset – burnout (direct) (c’)	.19	.06	4.31	.00
			Bootstrapping CI 95%
	B	SE	Lower bound	Upper bound
Mediation of flow (ab)	.08	.02	.03	.12

*CI = Confidence Interval.

CRB, critically reflective behavior.

Discussion

The present study explored teachers’ growth mindset and its relationships with teachers’ behaviors and experiences, assuming that implicit aspects such as perceptions, experiences and psychological states may have an important impact on teachers’ work (Bakker, 2008; Chu & Lee, 2012; Gero, 2013). The findings imply that teachers with a growth mindset, who believe that they can improve their teaching abilities, tend to experience higher levels of flow, practice more CRB and feel less burnout. The study also suggests that flow and CRB may explain these connections.

One of the main findings of the current study is the positive relationship between teachers’ growth mindset and flow. This finding implies that adopting a growth mindset might be an important means for improving teachers’ feelings at work and their well-being. Indeed, previous research has shown how teachers’ beliefs regarding their teaching ability can enhance their subjective feelings, such as flow, enjoyment and intrinsic motivation at work (Salanova et al., 2006; Shoshani, 2021), and that well-being mediates the relationship between growth mindset and work engagement (Zeng et al., 2019). It thus seems that teachers with growth mindset, who also adhere to learning goals (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), are more inclined to face challenges, strive for achievements (Rattan et al., 2012), and thus improve their chances to experience flow, as revealed in the present study.

With regard to teacher burnout, it may be noted that growth mindset was associated with less burnout, a finding that is similar to the association between growth mindset and teacher anxiety (Frondozo et al., 2020) that reflects an individual’s exhaustion – one of the sub-scales of teacher burnout. This finding implies that teacher growth mindset can serve as a buffer against negative emotions (Frondozo et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2016). Looking from another viewpoint, high growth mindset of teachers positively affects their level of engagement, enthusiasm and professional well-being (Shoshani, 2021), all of which are negatively associated with teachers’ burnout (e.g., Bermejo-Toro et al., 2016; Hakanen et al., 2006; Laitinen, 2022). It should be noted also that the relatively weak negative correlation between burnout and growth mindset might be a result of the relatively low levels of burnout reported by the respondents, a finding that was reported in previous studies (Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Williams, 2012).

The relationship between teachers’ growth mindset and CRB has been found in previous studies (Gero, 2013; Stenzel, 2015). If teachers believe their teaching abilities are malleable, yet they do nothing to develop them, they might experience cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1962). Such a dissonance may also develop when the environment is not supportive (Codd, 2005). In this case, teachers may confound their theoretical belief in the malleability of their teaching ability with the practical feasibility to do so. It is also possible that the dissonance would be as prominent as the professional aspect in teachers’ identity, based on the role of issue-importance in dissonance theorizing (Wakslak, 2012). In that case, teachers may solve the cognitive dissonance by adopting a fixed mindset (Zilka et al., 2022).

The Conservation of Resources theory (Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll & Freedy, 2017) may offer a solid explanation to the mediation effects of flow and CRB on the negative relationship between teachers’ growth mindset and burnout, as well as to the mediation effect of flow on the growth mindset-CRB relationship. The theory states that individuals aspire to achieve and preserve personal resources. When individuals lack such resources, they might experience higher levels of tension due to the need to acquire alternative resources (Hobfoll & Freedy, 2017). However, sufficient amounts of personal resources would help decrease tension levels and increase the volume of positive feelings. The present study essentially shows that teachers with growth mindset, who are more inclined to exhibit CRB (Gero, 2013; Stenzel, 2015) and experience flow (Williams, 2012), may thus have a larger inventory of personal resources, enabling them to experience less burnout and to cope better with it. Growth mindset presumably allows teachers to experience more positive job-related experiences than negative ones, and to maintain a positive balance of resources, enabling them to practice CRB (Bakker, 2008; Kasa & Hassan, 2016).

Holding and maintaining a positive balance of resources, with the aid of teachers’ growth mindset, can explain the relationships between growth mindset and the constructs flow and burnout. According to the JD-R model, a growth mindset can be viewed as a significant psychological resource that may assist teachers in coping with stress and job demands, consequently ameliorating their well-being. Such resources may be relevant and applicable in the current era where work-related psychological matters are more at stake, in particular as a result of the COVID-19 effects on work (Mihalache & Mihalache, 2022; Syrek et al., 2022). Recent evidence shows that growth mindset can serve as a facilitator to teachers’ well-being (Walter & Fox, 2021), and as a factor motivating teachers to invest in professional development. These findings place growth mindset as an invaluable asset for teachers that enables various benefits. In the professional field, it helps in shaping teachers’ critically reflective behavior, and in the psychological and personal field, it offers better coping with negative feelings at work, thus yielding more positive feelings and sense of flow.

Implications

The research findings have both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, the study contributes to the limited research literature on teachers’ mindsets, while addressing not just teachers’ behavior but rather the link among teachers’ mindsets, experiences and behaviors. In addition, whereas the JD-R model portrays flow as a dependent variable and a product of the motivational process (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), this study might be the first to suggest flow as an important prior resource for teachers’ functioning. By examining flow as a mediator connecting individuals’ beliefs and their behavior and experiences among teachers, this study presents a new framework for understanding how adopting and nurturing certain beliefs may result in desired performance-related outcomes. Flow was found to be a crucial mechanism for translating teachers’ growth mindset into CRB and burnout.

The fundamental, basic assumption of this paper is that in order to study behaviors and experiences, we need to focus on hidden, implicit variables, mainly attitudes and beliefs. In other words, “what is essential is invisible to the eye” (Saint-Exupéry, “The Little Prince”). This is the reason why the present study mainly deals with the potential contribution of psychological variables such as mindsets, flow and burnout. This study also offers practical implications to the educational field. It demonstrates the need to foster the connections between the research on mindsets and the practice of teaching and teacher education. The study emphasizes the significance of teachers’ growth mindset concerning some professional aspects of their work, thus offering a specific focus to designated intervention programs for shaping teachers’ mindsets, as already practiced (Seaton, 2018). The current study also points out that growth mindset, flow and lack of burnout are factors that encourage teachers to develop and improve themselves professionally, thus the study calls for including these aspects of interest within the professional enhancement programs for teachers. Implementing the findings and insights derived from this research by nurturing growth mindset among teachers (Seaton, 2018) might help improve our teachers’ professional behaviors as well as their subjective feelings, thus promoting teachers’ professional work, resilience and satisfaction.

Limitations and future research

This study has several limitations worth noticing. The data show relatively high levels of growth mindset and low levels of burnout among the study participants. This finding may imply that the sample is not representative of the entire population, as may be the case when online questionnaires are used (Lefever et al., 2007). Additionally, as only teachers can report on their beliefs, behaviors and experiences, data were collected from teachers only. Thus, this research is prone to a single source bias (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). It should also be noted that since data were collected in Israel solely, the generalizability of the findings to other countries is doubted. Finally, because sampling was performed via online questionnaires through social networks, other ways of sampling and distribution are recommended for future research.

Further research should be conducted on growth mindset and flow in order to examine the nature and directionality of their newly-discovered relationship: Is it a one-way path or rather a circular one? This line of research can manipulate growth vs. fixed mindsets (e.g., Rattan et al., 2012, Study 2) and examine the short-term effects of these manipulations on experiences of flow. We expect a mutual, spiral connection between growth mindset and flow, where growth mindset increases flow (as suggested by the results of the current study), but flow also enhances growth mindset, as implied from previous research (Zilka et al., 2022).

Future research should take into consideration other variables that may affect the relationship between growth mindset and its outcomes. For example, self-efficacy was found to be positively related to growth mindset (Gero, 2013; Glos, 2018; Williams, 2012), CRB (van Veelen et al., 2017) and negatively related to burnout (Ghanizadeh & Jahedizadeh, 2015; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010). As previous research has shown that self-efficacy predicts CRB and burnout, it would be interesting to examine the relationship between self-efficacy and growth mindset; self-efficacy, like growth mindset, may be a predictor of CRB and burnout, or it may be added to the research model as a mediator among growth mindset, CRB and burnout. In another possible addition to the research model, OCB may serve as a dependent variable, since connections were already found among OCB, job satisfaction and self-fulfillment (Oplatka, 2009). Finally, as well-being and perseverance of effort were recently found as mediators in the relationship between growth mindset and work engagement among teachers (Zeng et al., 2019), their inclusion in a research model as mediators may contribute to a better understanding of the effects of growth mindset and teachers’ outcomes.

It cannot be overlooked that the COVID-19 pandemic has vastly changed the educational system, both in teaching practices and in teachers’ positions and feelings. It would be beneficial to examine the potential implications of these changes on teachers’ growth mindset, and whether the findings of the current study are replicated in the post-COVID-19 era.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by The Open University of Israel’s Research Fund.

Notes on contributors

Avishay Zilka

Avishay Zilka, M.A. was a graduate student at the Open University of Israel when the study was completed. His research interests include growth mindset and teacher professional development.

Shiri Nussbaum

Shiri Nussbaum, Ph.D. is a lecturer in the Department of Education and Psychology at the Open University of Israel. Her research areas are educational psychology and social cognition.

Ronit Bogler

Ronit Bogler, Ph.D. is a faculty member in the Department of Education and Psychology at the Open University of Israel. Her research interests include educational leadership, organizational citizenship behavior, commitment and empowerment.