Advanced search
Publication Cover
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition Volume 63, 2023 - Issue 33
Submit an article Journal homepage
971
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Health-promoting germinated rice and value-added foods: a comprehensive and systematic review of germination effects on brown rice

John C. Beaulieua Food Processing & Sensory Quality Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USACorrespondence[email protected]
View further author information
,
Stephen M. Bouea Food Processing & Sensory Quality Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Regional Research Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USAView further author information
&
Piebiep Goufob Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, PortugalCorrespondence[email protected]
View further author information
Pages 11570-11603 | Published online: 11 Jul 2022

References

  • AACCI. 2008. AACCI definitions of whole grain/sprouted grain/whole grain product. February 2008 the AACC International Board approved the following statement on sprouted grains. 2008. AACCI, American Association of Cereal Chemists International.
  • Abd El-Hady, S. R., and M. A. Abd El-Galeel. 2012. The possibility of using ungerminated and germinated brown rice flours at different substitution levels of wheat flour in breadmaking. Journal of Food and Dairy Sciences 3 (10):529–40. doi: 10.21608/jfds.2012.81662.
  • Abubakar, B., H. M. Yakasai, N. Zawawi, and M. Ismail. 2018. Compositional analyses of white, brown and germinated forms of popular Malaysian rice to offer insight into the growing diet-related diseases. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 26 (2):706–15. doi: 10.1016/j.jfda.2017.06.010.
  • Abulude, F. O. 2004. Effect of processing on nutritional composition, phytate and functional properties of rice (Oryza sativa L.) flour. Nigerian Food Journal 22 (1):97–104.
  • Adamu, H. A., M. U. Imam, O. Der-Jiun, and M. Ismail. 2017. In utero exposure to germinated brown rice and Its GABA extract attenuates high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance in rat offspring. Journal of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics 10 (1–2):19–31. doi: 10.1159/000469663.
  • Adebiyi, A. P., A. O. Adebiyi, Y. Hasegawa, T. Ogawa, and K. Muramoto. 2009. Isolation and characterization of protein fractions from deoiled rice bran. European Food Research and Technology 228 (3):391–401. doi: 10.1007/s00217-008-0945-4.
  • Adom, K. K., and R. H. Liu. 2002. Antioxidant activity of grains. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 (21):6182–7. doi: 10.1021/jf0205099.
  • Afify, A. E. M., H. S. El-Beltagi, S. M. Abd El-Salam, and A. A. Omran. 2012. Protein solubility, digestibility and fractionation after germination of sorghum varieties. PloS One 7 (2):e31154. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031154.
  • Agboola, S., D. Ng, and D. Mills. 2005. Characterisation and functional properties of Australian rice protein isolates. Journal of Cereal Science 41 (3):283–90. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2004.10.007.
  • Ahuja, K, and S. Singh. 2017. Global market insights, rice protein market report, 2027. Rice protein market size by form (organic, inorganic), by product (isolates, concentrates, hydrolysates), by application [organic (sports & energy nutrition, bakery & confectionary, meat analogues & extenders, dairy alternatives), inorganic (food & beverages, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, animal feed)], regional outlook, price trend, competitive market share & forecast, 2017 – 2024. Global Market Insights. 250 p. Accessed April 14, 2022. https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/rice-protein-market.
  • Albarracin, M., R. J. Gonzalez, and S. R. Drago. 2013. Effect of soaking process on nutrient bio-accessibility and phytic acid content of brown rice cultivar. LWT - Food Science and Technology 53 (1):76–80. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2013.01.029.
  • Amagliani, L., J. O’Regan, A. L. Kelly, and J. A. O’Mahony. 2017. The composition, extraction, functionality and applications of rice proteins: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology 64:1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.01.008.
  • Anonymous. 2017. Multiple criteria for a sprouted whole grain. Oldways Whole Grains Council, Sprouted Grains Working Group. Oldways Whole Grains Council Phase I Summary Report, October 2017. Whole Grains Council. Accessed April 14, 2022. https://wholegrainscouncil.org/members/sprouted-grains-working-group.
  • Anonymous. 2020. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: 2020. April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2020 (NST-EST2020). U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division. Accessed April 14, 2022. https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/technical-documentation/research/evaluation-estimates/2020-evaluation-estimates/2010s-state-total.html.
  • Anonymous. 2021. Plant-based protein supplements market by type (soy protein, rice protein), form (powder, RTD), application (sports nutrition, additional nutrition), and distribution channel (hypermarket/supermarket, E-commerce, pharmacies) - Global forecast to 2027. Research and Markets: Dublin, Ireland, 2022; ID: 5337911. Meticulous Market Research Pvt. Ltd. 155 p. Accessed April 14, 2022. https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5337911/plant-based-protein-supplements-market-by-type#src-pos-2.
  • Anonymous. 2022. Plant-based protein market by type (soy protein, wheat protein, pea protein, potato protein, rice protein, corn protein), crop type (GMO), source process (organic), application (food and beverages, animal feed, nutritional supplements) - Global forecast to 2028. Research and Markets: Dublin, Ireland, 2022; ID: 4828547. Meticulous Market Research Pvt. Ltd. 245 p. Accessed April 14, 2022. https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/4828547/plant-based-protein-market-by-type-soy-protein#src-pos-4.
  • Ansharullah, Hourigan, J. A., and C. F. Chesterman. 1997. Application of carbohydrases in extracting protein from rice bran. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 74 (2):141–6. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199706)74:2<141::AID-JSFA778>3.0.CO;2-5.
  • Ardiansyah, Shirakawa, H., T. Koseki, K. Ohinata, K. Hashizume, and M. Komai. 2006. Rice bran fractions improve blood pressure, lipid profile, and glucose metabolism in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (5):1914–20. doi: 10.1021/jf052561l.
  • Azeke, M. A., S. J. Egielewa, M. U. Eigbogbo, and I. G. Ihimire. 2011. Effect of germination on the phytase activity, phytate and total phosphorus contents of rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays), millet (Panicum miliaceum), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Journal of Food Science and Technology 48 (6):724–9. doi: 10.1007/s13197-010-0186-y.
  • Azmi, N. H., N. Ismail, M. U. Imam, and M. Ismail. 2013. Ethyl acetate extract of germinated brown rice attenuates hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells: Role of anti-apoptotic, pro-survival and antioxidant genes. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13 (1):177. doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-13-177.
  • Banchuen, J., P. Thammarutwasik, B. Ooraikul, P. Wuttijumnong, and P. Sirivongpaisal. 2009. Effect of germinating processes on bioactive component of Sangyod Muang Phatthalung rice. Thai Journal of Agricultural Science 42 (4):191–9.
  • Banchuen, J., P. Thammarutwasik, B. Ooraikul, P. Wuttijumnong, and P. Sirivongpaisal. 2010. Increasing the bio-active compounds contents by optimizing the germination conditions of southern Thai brown rice. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology 32:219–30.
  • Beaulieu, J. C., R. A. Moreau, M. J. Powell, and J. M. Obando-Ulloa. 2022a. Lipid profiles in preliminary germinated brown rice beverages compared to non-germinated brown and white rice beverages. Foods (MDPI) 11 (2):220. doi: 10.3390/foods11020220.
  • Beaulieu, J., S. Boue, and P. Goufo. 2022b. Dataset of the levels of macronutrients, micronutrients, phytonutrients and bioactive compounds in brown rice and germinated brown rice (Oryza sativa L.), extracted from world-wide publications. Mendeley Data, version 2. doi: 10.17632/6ngk545s3k.2.https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/6ngk545s3k/2.
  • Beaulieu, J. C., M. P. Hojilla-Evangelista, J. M. Obando-Ulloa, and S. M. Boue. 2022c. Selected protein characteristics in preliminary germinated brown rice beverages compared to non-germinated brown and white rice beverages. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies (Unpublished).
  • Beaulieu, J. C., S. S. Reed, J. M. Obando-Ulloa, S. M. Boue, and M. R. Cole. 2020a. Green processing, germinating and wet milling brown rice (Oryza sativa) for beverages: Physicochemical effects. Foods (MDPI) 9 (8):1016. doi: 10.3390/foods9081016.
  • Beaulieu, J. C., S. S. Reed, J. M. Obando-Ulloa, and A. M. McClung. 2020b. Green processing protocol for germinating and wet milling brown rice beverage formulations: Sprouting, milling and gelatinization effects. Food Science & Nutrition 2020 (8):2445–57.
  • Birt, D. F., T. Boylston, S. Hendrich, J.-L. Jane, J. Hollis, L. Li, J. McClelland, S. Moore, G. J. Phillips, M. Rowling, et al. 2013. Resistant starch: Promise for improving human health. Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.) 4 (6):587–601. doi: 10.3945/an.113.004325.
  • Boue, S. M., K. W. Daigle, M. H. Chen, H. Cao, and M. L. Heiman. 2016. Antidiabetic potential of purple and red rice (Oryza sativa L.) bran extracts. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 64 (26):5345–53. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b01909.
  • Bramley, P., I. Elmadfa, A. Kafatos, F. Kelly, Y. Manios, H. Roxborough, W. Schuch, P. Sheehy, and K. Wagner. 2000. Vitamin E. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 80 (7):913–38. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000515)80:7<913::AID-JSFA600>3.0.CO;2-3.
  • Brunschwiler, C., D. Heine, S. Kappeler, B. Conde-Petit, and L. Nyström. 2013. Direct measurement of rice bran lipase activity for inactivation kinetics and storage stability prediction. Journal of Cereal Science 58 (2):272–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2013.06.007.
  • Butsat, S., and S. Siriamornpun. 2010. Phenolic acids and antioxidant activities in husk of different Thai rice varieties. Food Science and Technology International = Ciencia y Tecnologia de Los Alimentos Internacional 16 (4):329–36. doi: 10.1177/1082013210366966.
  • Caceres, P. J., C. Martinez-Villaluenga, L. Amigo, and J. Frias. 2014a. Maximising the phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of Ecuadorian brown rice sprouts through optimal germination conditions. Food Chemistry 152:407–14. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.11.156.
  • Caceres, P. J., C. Martinez-Villaluenga, L. Amigo, and J. Frias. 2014b. Assessment on proximate composition, dietary fiber, phytic acid and protein hydrolysis of germinated Ecuatorian brown rice. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 69 (3):261–7. doi: 10.1007/s11130-014-0433-x.
  • Caceres, P. J., E. Penas, C. Martinez-Villaluenga, P. Garcia-Mora, and J. Frias. 2019. Development of a multifunctional yogurt-like product from germinated brown rice. LWT 99:306–12.
  • Caceres, P. J., E. Penas, C. Martinez-Villaluenga, L. Amigo, and J. Frias. 2017. Enhancement of biologically active compounds in germinated brown rice and the effect of sun-drying. Journal of Cereal Science 73:1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2016.11.001.
  • Cao, J., F. Gu, Q. Luo, Z. Liu, and F. Wang. 2018. Correlation between changes in glutamate decarboxylase activity and γ-aminobutyric acid and glutamic acid contents in germinated brown rice. Food Science (China) 39 (16):47–52.
  • Cao, X., C. Li, H. Wen, and Z. Gu. 2010. Extraction technique and characteristics of soluble protein in germinated brown rice. International Journal of Food Properties 13 (4):810–20. doi: 10.1080/10942910902895200.
  • Chaijan, M., and W. Panpipat. 2020. Nutritional composition and bioactivity of germinated Thai indigenous rice extracts: A feasibility study. PLoS One 15 (8):e0237844. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237844.
  • Champagne, E. T. 2004. Rice: Chemistry and technology. St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.
  • Charoenthaikij, P., K. Jangchud, A. Jangchud, K. Piyachomkwan, P. Tungtrakul, and W. Prinyawiwatkul. 2009. Germination conditions affect physicochemical properties of germinated brown rice flour. Journal of Food Science 74 (9):C658–C665. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01345.x.
  • Charoenthaikij, P., K. Jangchud, A. Jangchud, W. Prinyawiwatkul, and H. K. No. 2012. Composite wheat-germinated brown rice flours: Selected physicochemical properties and bread application. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 47 (1):75–82. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02809.x.
  • Charoenthaikij, P., K. Jangchud, A. Jangchud, W. Prinyawiwatkul, and P. Tungtrakul. 2010. Germination conditions affect selected quality of composite wheat-germinated brown rice flour and bread formulations. Journal of Food Science 75 (6):S312–S318. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01712.x.
  • Chatchavanthatri, N., T. Junyusen, W. Arjharn, T. Treeamnuk, P. Junyusen, and P. Pakawanit. 2021. Effects of parboiling and infrared radiation drying on the quality of germinated brown rice. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 45 (11):e15892. doi: 10.1111/jfpp.15892.
  • Chen, C., L. Wang, Y. Guo, Z. Ding, J. Yang, and D. Xia. 2018. Effect of salt stress on γ-aminobutyric acid accumulation and protein composition in germinated brown rice. Food Science (China) 39 (5):87–92.
  • Chen, M. H., S. H. Choi, N. Kozukue, H. J. Kim, and M. Friedman. 2012. Growth-inhibitory effects of pigmented rice bran extracts and three red bran fractions against human cancer cells: Relationships with composition and antioxidative activities. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (36):9151–61. doi: 10.1021/jf3025453.
  • Chen, M. H., A. M. McClung, and C. J. Bergman. 2016a. Bran data of total flavonoid and total phenolic contents, oxygen radical absorbance capacity, and profiles of proanthocyanidins and whole grain physical traits of 32 red and purple rice varieties. Data in Brief 8:6–13. doi: 10.1016/j.dib.2016.05.001.
  • Chen, M. H., A. M. McClung, and C. J. Bergman. 2016b. Concentrations of oligomers and polymers of proanthocyanidins in red and purple rice bran and their relationships to total phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant capacity and whole grain color. Food Chemistry 208:279–87. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.04.004.
  • Chen, Z. G., Z. X. Gu, Z. J. Wang, W. M. Fang, and Y. Duan. 2003. Nutrition compositions of brown rice and its change during germination. Journal of Nanjing University 26 (3):84–7.
  • Cho, D. H., and S. T. Lim. 2016. Germinated brown rice and its bio-functional compounds. Food Chemistry 196:259–71. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.09.025.
  • Cho, D. H., and S. T. Lim. 2018. Changes in phenolic acid composition and associated enzyme activity in shoot and kernel fractions of brown rice during germination. Food Chemistry 256:163–70. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.02.040.
  • Cho, D. H., H. Y. Park, S. K. Lee, J. Park, H. S. Choi, K. S. Woo, H. J. Kim, E. Y. Sim, E. K. Ahn, and S. K. Oh. 2017. Cooking and textural properties of specialty germinated brown rices. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology 4 (6):575–83.
  • Cho, J. Y., H. J. Lee, G. A. Kim, G. D. Kim, Y. S. Lee, S. C. Shin, K. H. Park, and J. H. Moon. 2012. Quantitative analyses of individual γ-Oryzanol (steryl ferulates) in conventional and organic brown rice (Oryza sativa L.). Journal of Cereal Science 55 (3):337–43. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2012.01.005.
  • Choi, I., S. J. Suh, J. H. Kim, and S. L. Kim. 2009. Effects of germination on fatty acid and free amino acid profiles of brown rice ‘Keunnun’. Food Science and Biotechnology 18 (3):799–802.
  • Chung, H. J., D. W. Cho, J. D. Park, D. K. Kweon, and S. T. Lim. 2012. In-vitro starch digestibility and pasting properties of germinated brown rice after hydrothermal treatments. Journal of Cereal Science 56 (2):451–6. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2012.03.010.
  • Chung, I. S., N. S. Ryu, and Y. M. Kang. 2016. Germinated pigmented rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Superhongmi) improves glucose and bone metabolisms in ovariectomized rats. Nutrients (MDPI) 8 (10):658. doi: 10.3390/nu8100658.
  • Chung, S. I., and M. Y. Kang. 2020. A study on the functional components and health effectiveness of germinated Oryza sativa L. ‘Superhongmi’. Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology 23 (5):483–90. doi: 10.1007/s12892-020-00068-z.
  • Chung, S. I., and M. Y. Kang. 2021. Oral administration of germinated, pigmented, giant embryo rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Keunnunjami) extract improves the lipid and glucose metabolisms in high-fat diet-fed mice. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2021:8829778. doi: 10.1155/2021/8829778.
  • Chungcharoen, T., S. Prachayawarakorn, P. Tungtrakul, and S. Soponronnarit. 2014. Effects of Germination Process and Drying Temperature on Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) and Starch Digestibility of Germinated Brown Rice. Drying Technology 32 (6):742–53. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2013.879387.
  • Cicero, A. F. G., and A. Gaddi. 2001. Rice bran oil and γ-oryzanol in the treatment of hyperlipoproteinaemias and other conditions. Phytotherapy Research : PTR 15 (4):277–89. doi: 10.1002/ptr.907.
  • Corbo, M. R., A. Bevilacqua, L. Petruzzi, F. P. Casanova, and M. Sinigaglia. 2014. Functional beverages: The emerging side of functional foods. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 13 (6):1192–206. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12109.
  • Cornejo, F., P. J. Caceres, C. Martinez-Villaluenga, C. M. Rosell, and J. Frias. 2015. Effects of germination on the nutritive value and bioactive compounds of brown rice breads. Food Chemistry 173:298–304. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.10.037.
  • Crozier, A., I. B. Jaganath, and M. N. Clifford. 2009. Dietary phenolics: Chemistry, bioavailability and effects on health. Natural Product Reports 26 (8):1001–43. doi: 10.1039/b802662a.
  • Decloedt, A. I., A. Van Landschoot, H. Watson, D. Vanderputten, and L. Vanhaecke. 2017. Plant-based beverages as good sources of free and glycosidic plant sterols. Nutrients 10 (1):21. doi: 10.3390/nu10010021.
  • Deng, G. F., X. R. Xu, Y. Zhang, D. Li, R. Y. Gan, and H. B. Li. 2013. Phenolic compounds and bioactivities of pigmented rice. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 53 (3):296–306. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2010.529624.
  • Diana, M., J. Quilez, and M. Rafecas. 2014. Gamma-aminobutyric acid as a bioactive compound in foods: A review. Journal of Functional Foods 10:407–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2014.07.004.
  • Ding, J., A. V. Ulanov, M. Dong, T. Yang, B. V. Nemzer, S. Xiong, S. Zhao, and H. Feng. 2018. Enhancement of gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and other health-related metabolites in germinated red rice (Oryza sativa L.) by ultrasonication. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 40 (Pt A):791–7. doi: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2017.08.029.
  • Ding, J., T. Yang, H. Feng, M. Dong, M. Slavin, S. Xiong, and S. Zhao. 2016. Enhancing contents of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and other micronutrients in dehulled rice during germination under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 64 (5):1094–102. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b04859.
  • Dupuis, J. H., Q. Liu, and R. Y. Yada. 2014. Methodologies for increasing the resistant starch content of food starches: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 13 (6):1219–34. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12104.
  • Eggum, B. O., B. O. Juliano, C. M. Perez, and E. F. Acedo. 1993. The resistant starch, undigestible energy and undigestible protein contents of raw and cooked milled rice. Journal of Cereal Science 18 (2):159–70. doi: 10.1006/jcrs.1993.1043.
  • Esa, N., K. K. Abdul Kadir, Z. Amom, and A. Azlan. 2011. Improving the lipid profile in hypercholesterolemia-induced rabbit by supplementation of germinated brown rice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59 (14):7985–91. doi: 10.1021/jf201323x.
  • Esa, N. M., K. K. Abdul-Kadir, Z. Amom, and A. Azlan. 2013. Antioxidant activity of white rice, brown rice and germinated brown rice (in vivo and in vitro) and the effects on lipid peroxidation and liver enzymes in hyperlipidaemic rabbits. Food Chemistry 141 (2):1306–12.
  • Fabian, C., and Y. H. Ju. 2011. A review on rice bran protein: Its properties and extraction methods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 51 (9):816–27. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2010.482678.
  • Frei, M., P. Siddhuraju, and K. Becker. 2003. Studies on the in vitro starch digestibility and the glycemic index of six different indigenous rice cultivars from the Philippines. Food Chemistry 83 (3):395–402. doi: 10.1016/S0308-8146(03)00101-8.
  • Friedman, M. 2013. Rice brans, rice bran oils, and rice hulls: Composition, food and industrial uses, and bioactivities in humans, animals, and cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61 (45):10626–41. doi: 10.1021/jf403635v.
  • Ghosh, S. K. Datta, and S. K. Datta. 2019. 7: Rice vitamins. In Rice, ed. J. Bao, 4th ed., 195–220. Washington, DC: AACC International Press.
  • Godber, J. S, and B. O. Juliano. 2004. Rice lipids. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed. E. T. Champagne, 3rd ed., 163–90. St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.
  • Goufo, P., and H. Trindade. 2014. Rice antioxidants: Phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, tocopherols, tocotrienols, γ-oryzanol, and phytic acid. Food Science & Nutrition 2 (2):75–104. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.86.
  • Goufo, P., and H. Trindade. 2017. Factors influencing antioxidant compounds in rice. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 57 (5):893–922. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2014.922046.
  • Graham, I. A. 2008. Seed storage oil mobilization. Annual Review of Plant Biology 59 (1):115–42. doi: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092938.
  • Guardiola, F., R. Codony, P. B. Addis, M. Rafecas, and J. Boatella. 1996. Biological effects of oxysterols: Current status. Food and Chemical Toxicology : An International Journal Published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association 34 (2):193–211. doi: 10.1016/0278-6915(95)00094-1.
  • Gujral, H. S., P. Sharma, A. Kumar, and B. Singh. 2012. Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of extruded brown rice. International Journal of Food Properties 15 (2):301–11. doi: 10.1080/10942912.2010.483617.
  • Guraya, H. S. 2011. Effect of flour-blasting brown rice on reduction of cooking time and resulting texture. Cereal Chemistry Journal 88 (1):51–5. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-10-09-0131.
  • Guzman, M. K., S. Parween, V. M. Butardo, C. M. Alhambra, R. Anacleto, C. Seiler, A. R. Bird, C. P. Chow, and N. Sreenivasulu. 2017. Investigating glycemic potential of rice by unraveling compositional variations in mature grain and starch mobilization patterns during seed germination. Scientific Reports 7 (1):5854. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-06026-0.
  • Hales, C. M. M. D. Carrol, C. D. Fryar, and C. L. Ogden. 2020. Prevalence of obesity and severe obesity among adults: United States, 2017-2018. NCHS Data Brief, no 360. Hyattsville, MD, National Center for Health Statistics. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
  • Hamada, J. S. 1997. Characterization of protein fractions of rice bran to devise effective methods of protein solubilization. Cereal Chemistry Journal 74 (5):662–8. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM.1997.74.5.662.
  • Han, A., E. O. Arijaje, J. R. Jinn, A. Mauromoustakos, and Y. J. Wang. 2016a. Effects of germination duration on milling, physicochemical, and textural properties of medium- and long-grain rice. Cereal Chemistry Journal 93 (1):39–46. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-01-15-0012-R.
  • Han, A., J. R. Jinn, A. Mauromoustakos, and Y. J. Wang. 2016b. Effect of parboiling on milling, physicochemical, and textural properties of medium- and long-grain germinated brown rice. Cereal Chemistry Journal 93 (1):47–52. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-01-15-0013-R.
  • Hanafiah, N. M., M. S. Mispan, P. E. Lim, N. Baisakh, and A. Cheng. 2020. The 21st century agriculture: When rice research draws attention to climate variability and how weedy rice and underutilized grains come in handy. Plants 9 (3):365. doi: 10.3390/plants9030365.
  • Hartmann, R., and H. Meisel. 2007. Food-derived peptides with biological activity: From research to food applications. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 18 (2):163–9. doi: 10.1016/j.copbio.2007.01.013.
  • Hayat, A., T. M. Jahangir, M. Y. Khuhawar, M. Alamgir, Z. Hussain, F. U. Haq, and S. G. Musharraf. 2015. HPLC determination of gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) and some biogenic amines (BAs) in controlled, germinated, and fermented brown rice by pre-column derivatization. Journal of Cereal Science 64:56–62. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2015.04.014.
  • Hayat, A., T. M. Jahangir, M. Yar Khuhawar, M. Alamgir, R. Ali, A. Ali, and S. G. Musharraf. 2019. Determination of important phenolic compounds in Pakistani brown rice varieties in controlled, germinated and fermented conditions by high performance liquid chromatography. Progress in Chemical and Biochemical Research 2 (3):134–42.
  • He, L. Y., Y. Yang, L. K. Ren, X. Bian, X. F. Liu, F. L. Chen, B. Tan, Y. Fu, X. M. Zhang, and N. Zhang. 2022. Effects of germination time on the structural, physicochemical and functional properties of brown rice. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 57 (4):1902–10. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.15118.
  • Henderson, A. J., A. Kumar, B. Barnett, S. W. Dow, and E. P. Ryan. 2012. Consumption of rice bran increases mucosal immunoglobulin A concentrations and numbers of intestinal Lactobacillus spp. Journal of Medicinal Food 15 (5):469–75. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2011.0213.
  • Hernandez, N., M. E. Rodriguez-Alegría, F. Gonzalez, and A. Lopez-Munguia. 2000. Enzymatic treatment of rice bran to improve processing. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 77 (2):177–80. doi: 10.1007/s11746-000-0028-2.
  • Hiemori, M., E. Koh, and A. E. Mitchell. 2009. Influence of cooking on anthocyanins in black rice (Oryza sativa L. japonica var. SBR. )Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57 (5):1908–14. doi: 10.1021/jf803153z.
  • Hong, C. Y., K. J. Cheng, T. H. Tseng, C. S. Wang, L. F. Liu, and S. M. Yu. 2004. Production of two highly active bacterial phytases with broad pH optima in germinated transgenic rice seeds. Transgenic Research 13 (1):29–39. doi: 10.1023/B:TRAG.0000017158.96765.67.
  • Hsu, T. F., M. Kise, M. F. Wang, Y. Ito, M. D. Yang, H. Aoto, R. Yoshihara, J. Yokoyama, D. Kunii, and S. Yamamoto. 2008. Effects of pre-germinated brown rice on blood glucose and lipid levels in free-living patients with impaired fasting glucose or yype 2 diabetes. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 54 (2):163–8. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.54.163.
  • Hu, P., H. Zhao, Z. Duan, Z. Linlin, and D. Wu. 2004. Starch digestibility and the estimated glycemic score of different types of rice differing in amylose contents. Journal of Cereal Science 40 (3):231–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2004.06.001.
  • Hu, Z., X. Tang, J. Liu, Z. Zhu, and Y. Shao. 2017. Effect of parboiling on phytochemical content, antioxidant activity and physicochemical properties of germinated red rice. Food Chemistry 214:285–92. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.097.
  • Huang, Y. P., and H. M. Lai. 2016. Bioactive compounds and antioxidative activity of colored rice bran. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 24 (3):564–74. doi: 10.1016/j.jfda.2016.01.004.
  • Hudson, E. A., P. H. Dinh, T. Kokubun, M. S. J. Simmonds, and A. Gescher. 2000. Characterization of potentially chemopreventive phenols in extracts of brown rice that inhibit the growth of human breast and colon cancer cells. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 9 (11):1163–70.
  • Hung, P. V., N. L. Vien, and N. T. Lan Phi. 2016. Resistant starch improvement of rice starches under a combination of acid and heat-moisture treatments. Food Chemistry 191:67–73. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.002.
  • Hussain, S. Z., R. Jabeen, B. Naseer, and A. B. Shikari. 2020. Effect of soaking and germination conditions on γ-aminobutyric acid and gene expression in germinated brown rice. Food Biotechnology 34 (2):132–50. doi: 10.1080/08905436.2020.1744448.
  • Imam, M. U., N. H. Azmi, M. I. Bhanger, N. Ismail, and M. Ismail. 2012a. Antidiabetic properties of germinated brown rice. A systematic review. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine: eCAM 2012:81650–1. doi: 10.1155/2012/816501.
  • Imam, M. U., S. N. A. Musa, N. H. Azmi, and M. Ismail. 2012b. Effects of white rice, brown rice and germinated brown rice on antioxidant status of type 2 diabetic rats. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 13 (12):12952–69. doi: 10.3390/ijms131012952.
  • Indriarsih, S., M. Astuti, and S. Kanoni. 2017. Fatty acid composition and physiochemical properties in germinated black rice. Indonesian Food and Nutrition Progress 14 (1):29–36. doi: 10.22146/ifnp.24259.
  • Ismail, M., N. Abdul Hadi, R. Z. Haroun, S. N. A. Musa, and M. U. Imam. 2014. Energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis of elemental distribution in raw and germinated brown rice varieties. International Journal of Food Properties 17 (7):1449–59. doi: 10.1080/10942912.2012.717153.
  • Jacobs, D. R., Jr., L. F. Andersen, and R. Blomhoff. 2007. Whole-grain consumption is associated with a reduced risk of noncardiovascular, noncancer death attributed to inflammatory diseases in the Iowa Women’s Health Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 85 (6):1606–14. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/85.6.1606.
  • Jayadeep, A., and N. G. Malleshi. 2011. Nutrients, composition of tocotrienols, tocopherols, and γ-oryzanol, and antioxidant activity in brown rice before and after biotransformation. CyTA - Journal of Food 9 (1):82–7. doi: 10.1080/19476331003686866.
  • Jeong, B. G., K. S. Choi, and J. Chun. 2018. Physicochemical properties of Saeilmi (Oryza sativa Linne) germinated with different steeping and germination time. Korean Journal of Food Preservation 25 (3):311–20. doi: 10.11002/kjfp.2018.25.3.311.
  • Jirapa, K., Y. Jarae, R. Phanee, and K. Jirasak. 2016. Changes of bioactive components in germinated paddy rice (Oryza sativa L.). International Food Research Journal 23:229–36.
  • Juliano, B. O. 1985a. Rice bran. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed. B. O. Juliano, 647–80. St. Paul, MN. American Association of Cereal Chemists.
  • Juliano, B. O. 1985b. Rice: Chemistry and technology. St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
  • Juliano, B. O, and D. B. Bechtel. 1985. The rice grain and its gross composition. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed. B. O. Juliano, 17–57. St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
  • Jung, E. H., S. R. Kim, K. Hwang, and T. Y. Ha. 2007a. Hypoglycemic effects of a phenolic acid fraction of rice bran and ferulic acid in C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 (24):9800–4. doi: 10.1021/jf0714463.
  • Jung, I. S., Y. J. Kim, I. S. Choi, E. Y. Choi, S. H. Shin, S. W. Gal, and Y. J. Choi. 2007b. Studies on antioxidant activity and inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis of germinated brown rice soaked in Phellinus linteus. Journal of Life Science 17 (8):1141–6. doi: 10.5352/JLS.2007.17.8.1141.
  • Jung, H. Y., D. H. Lee, H. Y. Baek, and Y. S. Lee. 2008. Pre- and post-germination changes in pharmaceutical compounds of germinated brown rice. Korean Journal of Crop Science 53:37–43.
  • Kalman, D. S. 2014. Amino acid composition of an organic brown rice protein concentrate and isolate compared to soy and whey concentrates and isolates. Foods (Basel, Switzerland) 3 (3):394–402. doi: 10.3390/foods3030394.
  • Kamjijam, B., H. Bednarz, P. Suwannaporn, K. N. Jom, and K. Niehaus. 2020. Localization of amino acids in germinated rice grain: Gamma-aminobutyric acid and essential amino acids production approach. Journal of Cereal Science 93:102958. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2020.102958.
  • Kamjijam, B., P. Suwannaporn, H. Bednarz, K. N. Jom, and K. Niehaus. 2021. Elevation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and essential amino acids in vacuum impregnation mediated germinated rice traced by MALDI imaging. Food Chemistry 365:130399. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130399.
  • Kang, M. Y., Y. R. Lee, and S. H. Nam. 2003. Characterization of the germinated rices to examine an application potentials as functional rice processed foods. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology 35 (4):696–701.
  • Karladee, D., and S. Suriyong. 2012. γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) content in different varieties of brown rice during germination. ScienceAsia 38 (1):13–7. doi: 10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2012.38.013.
  • Kaur, M., B. Asthir, and G. Mahajan. 2017. Variation in antioxidants, bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity in germinated and ungerminated grains of ten rice cultivars. Rice Science 24 (6):349–59. doi: 10.1016/j.rsci.2017.08.002.
  • Khattak, A. B., A. Zeb, N. Bibi, S. A. Khalil, and M. S. Khattak. 2007. Influence of germination techniques on phytic acid and polyphenols content of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) sprouts. Food Chemistry 104 (3):1074–9. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.01.022.
  • Kiing, S. C., P. H. Yiu, A. Rajan, and S. C. Wong. 2009. Effect of germination on γ-oryzanol content of selected sarawak rice cultivars. American Journal of Applied Sciences 6 (9):1658–61. doi: 10.3844/ajassp.2009.1658.1661.
  • Kim, D. J., S. K. Oh, M. R. Yoon, A. R. Chun, I. S. Choi, D. H. Lee, J. S. Lee, K. W. Yu, and Y. K. Kim. 2011. The change in biological activities of brown rice and germinated brown rice. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition 40 (6):781–9. doi: 10.3746/jkfn.2011.40.6.781.
  • Kim, H. J., J. A. Han, S. T. Lim, and D. H. Cho. 2021. Effects of germination and roasting on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of brown rice for tea infusion. Food Chemistry 350:129240. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129240.
  • Kim, H. Y., I. G. Hwang, T. M. Kim, K. S. Woo, D. S. Park, J. H. Kim, D. J. Kim, J. Lee, Y. R. Lee, and H. S. Jeong. 2012. Chemical and functional components in different parts of rough rice (Oryza sativa L.) before and after germination. Food Chemistry 134 (1):288–93. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.02.138.
  • Kim, K. S., and H. D. Jang. 2004. Effects of chitosan and lactic acid on enzymatic activities and bioactive compounds during germination of black rice. Preventive Nutrition and Food Science 9 (3):199–205. doi: 10.3746/jfn.2004.9.3.199.
  • Kim, M. J., H. S. Kwak, and S. S. Kim. 2018. Effects of germination on protein, γ-aminobutyric acid, phenolic acids, and antioxidant capacity in wheat. Molecules 23 (9):2244–13. doi: 10.3390/molecules23092244.
  • Kim, M. Y., S. H. Lee, G. Y. Jang, M. Li, Y. R. Lee, J. Lee, and H. S. Jeong. 2015a. Influence of applied pressure on bioactive compounds of germinated rough rice (Oryza sativa L.). Food and Bioprocess Technology 8 (10):2176–81. doi: 10.1007/s11947-015-1565-1.
  • Kim, M. Y., S. H. Lee, G. Y. Jang, H. J. Park, M. Li, S. Kim, Y. R. Lee, Y. H. Noh, J. Lee, and H. S. Jeong. 2015b. Effects of high hydrostatic pressure treatment on the enhancement of functional components of germinated rough rice (Oryza sativa L.). Food Chemistry 166:86–92. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.150.
  • Kim, M. Y., S. H. Lee, G. Y. Jang, H. J. Park, N. Yoon, Y. R. Lee, J. Lee, and H. S. Jeong. 2015c. Effects of high hydrostatic pressure treatment on the chemical composition of germinated rough rice (Oryza sativa L.). Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology 47 (2):198–203. doi: 10.9721/KJFST.2015.47.2.198.
  • Kim, M. Y., S. H. Lee, G. Y. Jang, M. Li, Y. R. Lee, J. Lee, and H. S. Jeong. 2017. Changes of phenolic-acids and vitamin E profiles on germinated rough rice (Oryza sativa L.) treated by high hydrostatic pressure. Food Chemistry 217:106–11. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.08.069.
  • Kim, M. Y., S. H. Lee, G. Y. Jang, H. J. Park, L. Meishan, S. Kim, Y. R. Lee, J. Lee, and H. S. Jeong. 2014. The enzyme inhibitory activity of ethanol extracts derived from germinated rough rice (Oryza sativa L.) treated by high pressure. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology 46 (1):44–50. doi: 10.9721/KJFST.2014.46.1.44.
  • Kim, M. Y., S. H. Lee, G. Y. Jang, H. J. Park, L. Meishan, S. Kim, Y. R. Lee, J. Lee, and S. Jeong. 2013. Effects of high pressure treatment on antioxidant compounds and activity of germinated rough rice (Oryza sativa L.). Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition 42 (11):1783–91. doi: 10.3746/jkfn.2013.42.11.1783.
  • Kim, M.-H., S.-I. Ahn, C.-M. Lim, J.-W. Jhoo, and G.-Y. Kim. 2016. Effects of germinated brown rice addition on the flavor and functionality of yogurt. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources 36 (4):508–15. doi: 10.5851/kosfa.2016.36.4.508.
  • Kindleysides, S., R. Kruger, J. Douwes, G. W. Tannock, N. Renall, J. Slater, B. Lawley, A.-T. McGill, N. Brennan, M. Manukia, et al. 2019. Predictors Linking Obesity and the Gut Microbiome (the PROMISE Study): Protocol and Recruitment Strategy for a Cross-Sectional Study on Pathways That Affect the Gut Microbiome and Its Impact on Obesity. JMIR Research Protocols 8 (8):e14529. doi: 10.2196/14529.
  • Koehler, P., G. Hartmann, H. Wieser, and M. Rychlik. 2007. Changes of folates, dietary fiber, and proteins in wheat as affected by germination. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 (12):4678–83. doi: 10.1021/jf0633037.
  • Komatsuzaki, N., K. Tsukahara, H. Toyoshima, T. Suzuki, N. Shimizu, and T. Kimura. 2007. Effect of soaking and gaseous treatment on GABA content in germinated brown rice. Journal of Food Engineering 78 (2):556–60. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.10.036.
  • Kramer, R. M., V. R. Shende, N. Motl, C. N. Pace, and J. M. Scholtz. 2012. Toward a molecular understanding of protein solubility: Increased negative surface charge correlates with increased solubility. Biophysical Journal 102 (8):1907–15. doi: 10.1016/j.bpj.2012.01.060.
  • Kris-Etherton, P. M., K. D. Hecker, A. Bonanome, S. M. Coval, A. E. Binkoski, K. F. Hilpert, A. E. Griel, and T. D. Etherton. 2002. Bioactive compounds in foods: Their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. The American Journal of Medicine 113 (9):71–88. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00995-0.
  • Kuo, Y. H., P. Rozan, F. Lambein, J. Frias, and C. Vidal-Valverde. 2004. Effects of different germination conditions on the contents of free protein and non-protein amino acids of commercial legumes. Food Chemistry 86 (4):537–45. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2003.09.042.
  • Kwak, J. E., S. W. Yoon, D. J. Kim, M. R. Yoon, J. H. Lee, S. K. Oh, I. H. Kim, J. S. Lee, J. S. Lee, and J. K. Chang. 2013. Changes in nutraceutical lipid constituents of pre- and post-geminated brown rice oil. The Korean Journal of Food and Nutrition 26 (3):591–600. doi: 10.9799/ksfan.2013.26.3.591.
  • Laokuldilok, T., C. F. Shoemaker, S. Jongkaewwattana, and V. Tulyathan. 2011. Antioxidants and antioxidant activity of several pigmented rice brans. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59 (1):193–9. doi: 10.1021/jf103649q.
  • Lee, D. H., J. H. Kim, J. T. Bae, S. M. Park, H. B. Pyo, T. B. Choe, and B. C. Lee. 2004. Development of peptides from the germinated black rice and applications as cosmetics ingredients. Journal of the Society of Cosmetic Scientists of Korea 30:2–241.
  • Lee, J.-S., N. Sreenivasulu, R. S. Hamilton, and A. Kohli. 2019. Brown rice, a diet rich in health promoting properties. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 65 (Suppl):S26–S28. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.65.S26.
  • Lee, K. H., H. Ha, H. J. Kim, H. Y. Park, E. U. Sim, S. K. Oh, W. H. Kim, H. S. Jeong, and K. S. Woo. 2016. Functional components and radical scavenging activity of germinated brown rice according to variety. The Korean Journal of Food and Nutrition 29 (2):145–52. doi: 10.9799/ksfan.2016.29.2.145.
  • Lee, S. Y., K. Y. Lee, and H. G. Lee. 2018. Effect of different pH conditions on the in vitro digestibility and physicochemical properties of citric acid-treated potato starch. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 107:1235–41. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.09.106.
  • Lee, Y. R., C. E. Kim, M. Y. Kang, and S. H. Nam. 2007a. Cholesterol-lowering and antioxidant status-improving efficacy of germinated giant embryonic rice (Oryza sativa L.) in high cholesterol-fed rats. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 51 (6):519–26. doi: 10.1159/000112733.
  • Lee, Y. R., K. S. Woo, K. J. Kim, J. R. Son, and H. S. Jeong. 2007b. Antioxidant activities of ethanol extracts from germinated specialty rough rice. Food Science and Biotechnology 16 (2):765–70.
  • Lehmann, U., and F. Robin. 2007. Slowly digestible starch- its structure and health implications: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (7):346–55. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2007.02.009.
  • Lemmens, E., A. Moroni, J. Pagand, P. Heirbaut, A. Ritala, Y. Karlen, K. Le, H. Van den Broeck, F. J. P. H. Brouns, N. De Brier, et al. 2019. Impact of cereal seed sprouting on its nutritional and technological properties: A critical review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 18 (1):305–28. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12414.
  • Lerma-Garcia, M. J., J. M. Herrero-Martinez, A. E. F. Simo-Alfonso, C. B. Mendonca, and G. Ramis-Ramos. 2009. Composition, industrial processing and applications of rice bran γ-oryzanol. Food Chemistry 115 (2):389–404. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.01.063.
  • Lestienne, I., C. Icard-Verniere, C. Mouquet, C. Picq, and S. Treche. 2005. Effects of soaking whole cereal and legume seeds on iron, zinc and phytate contents. Food Chemistry 89 (3):421–5. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.03.040.
  • Li, K., G. Hu, S. Yu, Q. Tang, and J. Liu. 2018. Effect of the iron biofortification on enzymes activities and antioxidant properties in germinated brown rice. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization 12 (2):789–99. doi: 10.1007/s11694-017-9693-0.
  • Li, Y., X. Su, F. Shi, L. Wang, and Z. Chen. 2017. High-temperature air-fluidization-induced changes in the starch texture, rheological properties, and digestibility of germinated brown rice. Starch - Stärke 69 (9-10):1600328. doi: 10.1002/star.201600328.
  • Liang, J., B. Z. Han, M. J. R. Nout, and R. J. Hamer. 2008. Effects of soaking, germination and fermentation on phytic acid, total and in vitro soluble zinc in brown rice. Food Chemistry 110 (4):821–8. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.064.
  • Liang, J., B. Z. Han, M. J. R. Nout, and R. J. Hamer. 2009. Effect of soaking and phytase treatment on phytic acid, calcium, iron and zinc in rice fractions. Food Chemistry 115 (3):789–94. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.12.051.
  • Lim, Y. H., H. Y. Lee, and M. S. Jang. 1993. Changes of physicochemical properties of soaked glutinous rice during preparation of yu-kwa. Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology 25 (3):247–51.
  • Lin, P. Y., S. C. Li, H. P. Lin, and C. K. Shih. 2019. Germinated brown rice combined with Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis inhibits colorectal carcinogenesis in rats. Food Science & Nutrition 7 (1):216–24. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.864.
  • Lin, Y. T., C. C. Pao, S. T. Wu, and C. Y. Chang. 2015. Effect of different germination conditions on antioxidative properties and bioactive compounds of germinated brown rice. BioMed Research International 2015:608761. doi: 10.1155/2015/608761.
  • Liu, R. H. 2007. Whole grain phytochemicals and health. Journal of Cereal Science 46 (3):207–19. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2007.06.010.
  • Liu, L., F. Chen, Y. Zhao, Z. Gu, and H. Yang. 2011. Selenium accumulation in protein fractions during germination of Se-enriched brown rice and molecular weights distribution of Se-containing proteins. Food Chemistry 127 (4):1526–31. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.02.010.
  • Loypimai, P., A. Moonggarm, and P. Chottanom. 2009. Effects of ohmic heating on lipase activity, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of rice bran. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 3 (4):3642–52.
  • Luh, B. S. 1991. Rice production, 2nd ed., 440. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, Inc.
  • Ma, Z., X. Hu, and J. I. Boye. 2020. Research advances on the formation mechanism of resistant starch type III: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 60 (2):276–97. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1523785.
  • Maksup, S., S. Pongpakpian, S. Roytrakul, S. Cha-Um, and K. Supaibulwatana. 2018. Comparative proteomics and protein profile related to phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in germinated Oryza sativa KDML105 and Thai brown rice Mali Daeng for better nutritional value. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 98 (2):566–73. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.8498.
  • Mamiya, T., M. Kise, K. Morikawa, H. Aoto, M. Ukai, and Y. Noda. 2007. Effects of pre-germinated brown rice on depression-like behavior in mice. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 86 (1):62–7. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.008.
  • Mandak, E., and L. Nystrom. 2012. The effect of in vitro digestion on steryl ferulates from rice (Oryza sativa L.) and other grains. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (24):6123–30. doi: 10.1021/jf300781a.
  • Marinangeli, C. P. F., P. J. H. Jones, A. N. Kassis, and M. N. A. Eskin. 2010. Policosanols as nutraceuticals: Fact or fiction. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 50 (3):259–67. doi: 10.1080/10408391003626249.
  • Masuzaki, H., C. Kozuka, S. Okamoto, M. Yonamine, H. Tanaka, and M. Shimabukuro. 2019. Brown rice-specific γ-oryzanol as a promising prophylactic avenue to protect against diabetes mellitus and obesity in humans. Journal of Diabetes Investigation 10 (1):18–25. doi: 10.1111/jdi.12892.
  • Mazza, G. J. 2007. Anthocyanins and heart health. Annali Dell’Istituto Superiore di Sanita 43 (4):369–74.
  • Megat Rusydi, M. R., C. W. Noraliza, A. Azrina, and A. Zulkhairi. 2011. Nutritional changes in germinated legumes and rice varieties. International Food Research Journal 18:705–13.
  • Michaeli, S., and H. Fromm. 2015. Closing the loop on the GABA shunt in plants: Are GABA metabolism and signaling entwined? Frontiers in Plant Science 6:419. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00419.
  • Mikola, M., O. Brinck, and B. L. Jones. 2001. Characterization of oat endoproteinases that hydrolyze oat avenins. Cereal Chemistry Journal 78 (1):55–8. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM.2001.78.1.55.
  • Min, B., A. McClung, and M. H. Chen. 2014. Effects of hydrothermal processes on antioxidants in brown, purple and red bran whole grain rice (Oryza sativa L.). Food Chemistry 159:106–15. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.02.164.
  • Min, B., A. M. McClung, and M. H. Chen. 2011. Phytochemicals and antioxidant capacities in rice brans of different color. Journal of Food Science 76 (1):C117–C126. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01929.x.
  • Miura, D., Y. Ito, A. Mizukuchi, M. Kise, H. Aoto, and K. Yagasaki. 2006. Hypocholesterolemic action of pre-germinated brown rice in hepatoma-bearing rats. Life Sciences 79 (3):259–64. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2006.01.001.
  • Modesti, P. A., G. Reboldi, F. P. Cappuccio, C. Agyemang, G. Remuzzi, S. Rapi, E. Perruolo, and G. Parati. 2016. Panethnic differences in blood pressure in Europe: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 11 (1):e0147601. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147601.
  • Moon, S. H., K. B. Lee, and M. K. Han. 2010. Comparison of GABA and vitamin contents of germinated brown rice soaked in different soaking solution. Korean Journal of Food & Nutrition 23 (4):511–5.
  • Moongngarm, A., and E. Khomphiphatkul. 2011. Germination time dependence of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity in germinated rough rice (Oryza sativa L. )American Journal of Applied Sciences 8 (1):15–25. doi: 10.3844/ajassp.2011.15.25.
  • Moongngarm, A., T. Moontree, P. Deedpinrum, and K. Padtong. 2014. Functional properties of brown rice flour as affected by germination. APCBEE Procedia 8:41–6. doi: 10.1016/j.apcbee.2014.01.077.
  • Moongngarm, A., and N. Saetung. 2010. Comparison of chemical compositions and bioactive compounds of germinated rough rice and brown rice. Food Chemistry 122 (3):782–8. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.03.053.
  • Moreau, R. A., L. Nystrom, B. D. Whitaker, J. K. Winkler-Moser, D. J. Baer, S. K. Gebauer, and K. B. Hicks. 2018. Phytosterols and their derivatives: Structural diversity, distribution, metabolism, analysis, and health-promoting uses. Progress in Lipid Research 70:35–61. doi: 10.1016/j.plipres.2018.04.001.
  • Morita, N., T. Maeda, M. Watanabe, and S. Yano. 2007. Pre-Germinated Brown Rice Substituted Bread: Dough Characteristics and Bread Structure. International Journal of Food Properties 10 (4):779–89. doi: 10.1080/10942910601183643.
  • Muhammad, S. I., R. Mahmud, Z. Abu Bakar Zakaria, M. U. Imam, and M. Ismail. 2013. Upregulation of genes related to bone formation by g-amino butyric acid and g-oryzanol in germinated brown rice is via the activation of GABAB-receptors and reduction of serum IL-6 in rats. Clinical Interventions in Aging 8:1259–71. doi: 10.2147/CIA.S45943.
  • Munarko, H., A. B. Sitanggang, F. Kusnandar, and S. Budijanto. 2021a. Effect of different soaking and germination methods on bioactive compounds of germinated brown rice. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 56 (9):4540–8. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.15194.
  • Munarko, H., A. B. Sitanggang, F. Kusnandar, and S. Budijanto. 2021b. Germination of five Indonesian brown rice: Evaluation of antioxidant, bioactive compounds, fatty acids and pasting properties. Food Science and Technology 42:e19721. doi: 10.1590/fst.19721.
  • Musso, G., R. Gambino, and M. Cassader. 2010. Obesity, diabetes, and gut microbiota: The hygiene hypothesis expanded? Diabetes Care 33 (10):2277–84. doi: 10.2337/dc10-0556.
  • Nakamura, S., K. Kaneko, T. Mitsui, and K. Ohtsubo. 2020. Evaluation of the palatability and biofunctionality of brown rice germinated in red onion solution. Cereal Chemistry 97 (4):836–48. doi: 10.1002/cche.10305.
  • Nam, S. H., S. P. Choi, M. Y. Kang, H. J. Koh, N. Kozukue, and M. Friedman. 2006. Antioxidative activities of bran extracts from twenty one pigmented rice cultivars. Food Chemistry 94 (4):613–20. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.12.010.
  • Nascimento, L. A., B. P. Avila, R. Colussi, and M. C. Elias. 2020. Effect of abiotic stress on bioactive compound production in germinated brown rice. Cereal Chemistry 97 (4):868–76. doi: 10.1002/cche.10310.
  • Nelson, K., L. Stojanovska, T. Vasiljevic, and M. Mathai. 2013. Germinated grains: A superior whole grain functional food? Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 91 (6):429–41. doi: 10.1139/cjpp-2012-0351.
  • Ng, L. T., S. H. Huang, Y. T. Chen, and C. H. Su. 2013. Changes of tocopherols, tocotrienols, g-oryzanol, and g-aminobutyric acid levels in the germinated brown rice of pigmented and nonpigmented cultivars. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61 (51):12604–11. doi: 10.1021/jf403703t.
  • Ng, M., T. Fleming, M. Robinson, B. Thomson, N. Graetz, C. Margono, E. C. Mullany, S. Biryukov, C. Abbafati, S. F. Abera, et al. 2014. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet 384 (9945):766–81. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60460-8.
  • Nonogaki, H., G. W. Bassel, and J. D. Bewley. 2010. Germination - Still a mystery. Plant Science 179 (6):574–81. doi: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.02.010.
  • Noreen, N., H. Shah, F. Anjum, T. Masood, and S. Faisal. 2009. Variation in mineral composition and phytic acid content in different rice varieties during home traditional cooking processes. ID - 20093274215. Pakistan Journal of Life and Social Sciences 7 (1):11–5.
  • Oh, C. H., and S. H. Oh. 2004. Effects of germinated brown rice extracts with enhanced levels of GABA on cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis. Journal of Medicinal Food 7 (1):19–23. doi: 10.1089/109662004322984653.
  • Oh, S. H., and C. H. Oh. 2003. Brown rice extracts with enhanced levels of GABA stimulate immune cells. Food Science and Biotechnology 12 (3):248–52.
  • Oh, S. K., P. S. Hwang, K. J. Kim, Y. K. Kim, and J. H. Lee. 2010a. Changes in nutritional components throughout germination in paddy rice and brown rice. Preventive Nutrition and Food Science 15 (2):113–9. doi: 10.3746/jfn.2010.15.2.113.
  • Oh, S. K., J. H. Lee, H. G. Hwang, D. H. Lee, Y. G. Kim, and J. H. Lee. 2010b. Changes in physicochemical properties and antioxidant activities of brown rice (Oryza sativa L.) throughout germination. Preventive Nutrition and Food Science 15 (3):221–8. doi: 10.3746/jfn.2010.15.3.221.
  • Ohtsubo, K., K. Suzuki, Y. Yasui, and T. Kasumi. 2005. Bio-functional components in the processed pre-germinated brown rice by a twin-screw extruder. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 18 (4):303–16. doi: 10.1016/j.jfca.2004.10.003.
  • Okarter, N., C. S. Liu, M. E. Sorrells, and R. H. Liu. 2010. Phytochemical content and antioxidant activity of six diverse varieties of whole wheat. Food Chemistry 119 (1):249–57. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.06.021.
  • Oki, T., M. Masuda, M. Kobayashi, Y. Nishiba, S. Furuta, I. Suda, and T. Sato. 2002. Polymeric procyanidins as radical-scavenging components in red-hulled rice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 (26):7524–9. doi: 10.1021/jf025841z.
  • Omary, M. B., C. Fong, J. Rothschild, and P. Finney. 2012. Effects of germination on the nutritional profile of gluten-free cereals and pseudocereals: A review. Cereal Chemistry Journal 89 (1):1–14. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-01-11-0008.
  • Oo, E. M., K. Ruamyod, L. Khowawisetsut, C. Turbpaiboon, V. Chaisuksunt, P. Uawithya, N. Pholphana, N. Rangkadilok, and S. Chompoopong. 2020. Germinated brown rice attenuates cell death in vascular cognitive impaired mice and glutamate-induced toxicity in HT22 cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 68 (18):5093–106. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07957.
  • Osborne, T. B. 1924. The vegetable proteins. London, UK: Longmans, Green and Co.
  • Osborne, T. B. 1895. The proteids of barley. 1. Journal of the American Chemical Society 17 (7):539–67. doi: 10.1021/ja02162a008.
  • Owolabi, I. O., K. Chakree, and T. C. Yupanqui. 2019. Bioactive components, antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties (on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells) of soaked and germinated purple rice extracts. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 54 (7):2374–86. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.14148.
  • Owolabi, I. O., P. Dat-arun, Y. C. Takahashi, and S. Wichienchot. 2020. Gut microbiota metabolism of functional carbohydrates and phenolic compounds from soaked and germinated purple rice. Journal of Functional Foods 66:103787. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2020.103787.
  • Packer, L., S. U. Weber, and G. Rimbach. 2001. Molecular aspects of alpha-tocotrienol antioxidant action and cell signalling. The Journal of Nutrition 131 (2):369S–73S. doi: 10.1093/jn/131.2.369S.
  • Padhye, V. W., and D. K. Salunkhe. 1979. Extraction and characterization of rice proteins. Cereal Chemistry 56 (5):389–93.
  • Pagand, J., P. Heirbaut, A. Pierre, and B. Pareyt. 2017. The magic and challenges of sprouted grains. Cereal Foods World 62 (5):221–6. doi: 10.1094/CFW-62-5-0221.
  • Page, M. J., J. E. McKenzie, P. M. Bossuyt, I. Boutron, T. C. Hoffmann, C. D. Mulrow, L. Shamseer, J. M. Tetzlaff, E. A. Akl, S. E. Brennan, et al. 2021. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.) 372:n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71.
  • Pal, P., N. Singh, P. Kaur, A. Kaur, A. S. Virdi, and N. Parmar. 2016. Comparison of composition, protein, pasting, and phenolic compounds of brown rice and germinated brown rice from different cultivars. Cereal Chemistry Journal 93 (6):584–92. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-03-16-0066-R.
  • Pang, Y., S. Ahmed, Y. Xu, T. Beta, Z. Zhu, Y. Shao, and J. Bao. 2018. Bound phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of whole grain and bran of white, red and black rice. Food Chemistry 240:212–21. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.07.095.
  • Patil, S. B., and M. K. Khan. 2011. Germinated brown rice as a value added rice product: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 48 (6):661–7. doi: 10.1007/s13197-011-0232-4.
  • Patindol, J. A., H. S. Guraya, E. T. Champagne, and A. M. McClung. 2010. Nutritionally important starch fractions of rice cultivars grown in southern United States. Journal of Food Science 75 (5):no–H144. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01627.x.
  • Paucar-Menacho, L. M., M. A. Berhow, J. M. G. Mandarino, E. G. de Mejia, and Y. K. Chang. 2010. Optimisation of germination time and temperature on the concentration of bioactive compounds in Brazilian soybean cultivar BRS 133 using response surface methodology. Food Chemistry 119 (2):636–42. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.07.011.
  • Perez-Jimenez, J., and F. Saura-Calixto. 2005. Literature data may underestimate the actual antioxidant capacity of cereals. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53 (12):5036–40. doi: 10.1021/jf050049u.
  • Pinkaew, H., Y. J. Wang, and O. Naivikul. 2017. Impact of pre-germination on amylopectin molecular structures, crystallinity, and thermal properties of pre-germinated brown rice starches. Journal of Cereal Science 73:151–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2016.12.013.
  • Pramai, P., P. Thanasukarn, T. Thongsook, P. Jannoey, F. Chen, and S. Jiamyangyuen. 2019. Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) extracted from germinated rice: Enzymatic properties and its application in soymilk. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 65 (Suppl):S166–S170. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.65.S166.
  • Qureshi, A. A., H. Mo, L. Packer, and D. M. Peterson. 2000. Isolation and identification of novel tocotrienols from rice bran with hypocholesterolemic, antioxidant, and antitumor properties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48 (8):3130–40. doi: 10.1021/jf000099t.
  • Qureshi, A. A., S. A. Sami, W. A. Salser, and F. A. Khan. 2002. Dose dependent suppression of serum cholesterol by tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRP25) of rice bran in hypercholesterolemic humans. Atherosclerosis 161 (1):199–207. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9150(01)00619-0.
  • Rackis, J. J., D. J. Sessa, and D. H. Honig. 1979. Flavor problems of vegetable food proteins. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 56 (3Part2):262–71. doi: 10.1007/BF02671470.
  • Ramesh, S. A., S. D. Tyerman, B. Xu, J. Bose, S. Kaur, V. Conn, P. Domingos, S. Ullah, S. Wege, S. Shabala, et al. 2015. GABA signalling modulates plant growth by directly regulating the activity of plant-specific anion transporters. Nature Communications 6 (1):7879. doi: 10.1038/ncomms8879.
  • Ravichanthiran, K., F. Z. Ma, H. Zhang, Y. Cao, W. C. Wang, S. Muhammad, K. E. Aglago, Y. Zhang, Y. Jin, and B. Pan. 2018. Phytochemical profile of brown rice and Its nutrigenomic implications. Antioxidants 7 (6):71. doi: 10.3390/antiox7060071.
  • Ren, C., B. Hong, X. Zheng, L. Wang, Y. Zhang, L. Guan, X. Yao, W. Huang, Y. Zhou, and S. Lu. 2020. Improvement of germinated brown rice quality with autoclaving treatment. Food Science & Nutrition 8 (3):1709–17. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.1459.
  • Ri, H. C., J. Yun, K. Sin, and S. Ri. 2018. Analysis of gamma-amino butyric acid in the germinated brown rice by pre-column derivatization with 2, 4-dinitrofluorobenzene. arXiv 1801:02289.
  • Rimsten, L., A. K. Haraldsson, R. Andersson, M. Alminger, A. S. Sandberg, and P. Aman. 2002. Effects of malting on b-glucanase and phytase activity in barley grain. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 82 (8):904–12. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.1135.
  • Roland, W. S. U., L. Pouvreau, J. Curran, F. van de Velde, and P. M. T. de Kok. 2017. Flavor aspects of pulse ingredients. Cereal Chemistry Journal 94 (1):58–65. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-06-16-0161-FI.
  • Rong, N., L. M. Ausman, and R. J. Nicolosi. 1997. Oryzanol decreases cholesterol absorption and aortic fatty streaks in hamsters. Lipids 32 (3):303–9. doi: 10.1007/s11745-997-0037-9.
  • Roohinejad, S., H. Mirhosseini, N. Saari, S. Mustafa, I. Alias, and A. S. M. Hussin. 2009. Evaluation of GABA, crude protein and amino acid composition from different varieties of Malaysian’s brown rice. Australian Journal of Crop Science 3 (4):184–90.
  • Roohinejad, S., A. Omidizadeh, H. Mirhosseini, N. Saari, S. Mustafa, A. S. M. Hussin, A. Hamid, and M. Y. A. Manap. 2011. Effect of pre-germination time on amino acid profile and gamma amino butyric acid GABA contents in different varieties of Malaysian brown rice. International Journal of Food Properties 14 (6):1386–99. doi: 10.1080/10942911003687207.
  • Ryan, E. P. 2011. Bioactive food components and health properties of rice bran. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 238 (5):593–600. doi: 10.2460/javma.238.5.593.
  • Saikusa, T., T. Horino, and Y. Mori. 1994. Distribution of free amino acids in the rice kernel and kernel fractions and the effect of water soaking on the distribution. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 42 (5):1122–5. doi: 10.1021/jf00041a015.
  • Sakamoto, S., T. Hayashi, K. Hayashi, F. Murai, M. Hori, K. Kimoto, and K. Murakami. 2007. Pre-germinated brown rice could enhance maternal mental health and immunity during lactation. European Journal of Nutrition 46 (7):391–6. doi: 10.1007/s00394-007-0678-3.
  • Sansenya, S., Y. Hua, S. Chumanee, K. Phasai, and C. Sricheewin. 2017. Effect of gamma irradiation on 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline content, GABA content and volatile compounds of germinated rice (Thai upland rice). Plants (Basel) 6 (4):18. doi: 10.3390/plants6020018.
  • Santos-Buelga, C., and A. Scalbert. 2000. Proanthocyanidins and tannin-like compounds - nature, occurrence, dietary intake and effects on nutrition and health. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 80 (7):1094–117. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000515)80:7<1094::AID-JSFA569>3.0.CO;2-1.
  • Saunders, R. M. 1990. The properties of rice bran as a food stuff. Cereal Foods World 35:632–62.
  • Schramm, R., A. Abadie, N. Hua, Z. Xu, and M. Lima. 2007. Fractionation of the rice bran layer and quantification of vitamin E, oryzanol, protein, and rice bran saccharide. Journal of Biological Engineering 1:9. doi: 10.1186/1754-1611-1-9.
  • Shaikh, F., T. M. Ali, G. Mustafa, and A. Hasnain. 2019. Comparative study on effects of citric and lactic acid treatment on morphological, functional, resistant starch fraction and glycemic index of corn and sorghum starches. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 135:314–27. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.05.115.
  • Shallan, M. A., H. S. El-Beltagi, A. M. Mona, and T. M. Amera. 2010. Chemical evaluation of pre-germinated brown rice and whole grain rice bread. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry 9:958–71.
  • Shao, Y., and J. Bao. 2015. Polyphenols in whole rice grain: Genetic diversity and health benefits. Food Chemistry 180:86–97. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.027.
  • Shao, Y., Z. Hu, Y. Yu, R. Mou, Z. Zhu, and T. Beta. 2018. Phenolic acids, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, antioxidant activity, minerals and their correlations in non-pigmented, red, and black rice. Food Chemistry 239:733–41. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.07.009.
  • Shayo, N. B., H. S. Laswai, B. P. M. Tiisekwa, S. A. M. Nnko, A. B. Gidamis, and P. Njoki. 2001. Evaluation of nutritive value and functional qualities of sorghum subjected to different traditional processing methods. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 52 (2):117–26. doi: 10.1080/713671774.
  • Shen, S., Y. Wang, M. Li, F. Xu, L. Chai, and J. Bao. 2015. The effect of anaerobic treatment on polyphenols, antioxidant properties, tocols and free amino acids in white, red, and black germinated rice (Oryza sativa L.). Journal of Functional Foods 19:641–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.09.057.
  • Shen, Y., L. Jin, P. Xiao, Y. Lu, and J. Bao. 2009. Total phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant capacity in rice grain and their relations to grain color, size and weight. Journal of Cereal Science 49 (1):106–11. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2008.07.010.
  • Shih, F. F. 2003. An update on the processing of high-protein rice products. Die Nahrung 47 (6):420–4. doi: 10.1002/food.200390093.
  • Shih, F. F. 2004. Rice proteins. In Rice: Chemistry and technology, ed. E. T. Champagne, 3rd ed., 143–62. St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc.
  • Shih, F. F., E. T. Champagne, K. Daigle, and Z. Zarins. 1999. Use of enzymes in the processing of protein products from rice bran and rice flour. Nahrung / Food 43 (1):14–8. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-3803(19990101)43:1<14::AID-FOOD14>3.0.CO;2-K.
  • Shih, F. F., and K. W. Daigle. 2000. Preparation and characterization of rice protein isolates. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 77 (8):885–9. doi: 10.1007/s11746-000-0141-2.
  • Shu, X. L., T. Frank, Q. Y. Shu, and K. H. Engel. 2008. Metabolite profiling of germinating rice seeds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56 (24):11612–20. doi: 10.1021/jf802671p.
  • Sibian, M. S., D. C. Saxena, and C. S. Riar. 2017. Effect of germination on chemical, functional and nutritional characteristics of wheat, brown rice and triticale: A comparative study. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 97 (13):4643–51. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.8336.
  • Singh, A., S. Sharma, and B. Singh. 2017. Effect of germination time and temperature on the functionality and protein solubility of sorghum flour. Journal of Cereal Science 76:131–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.06.003.
  • Singh, A., S. Sharma, and B. Singh. 2018. Germination behaviour, physico-nutritional properties, and diastase activity of brown rice influenced by germination time and temperature. Acta Alimentaria 47 (1):70–9. doi: 10.1556/066.2018.47.1.9.
  • Songsamoe, S., K. Khunjan, and N. Matan. 2021. The application and mechanism of action of Michelia alba oil vapour in GABA enhancement and microbial growth control of germinated brown rice. Food Control. 130:108401. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108401.
  • Srisang, N., W. Varanyanond, S. Soponronnarit, and S. Prachayawarakorn. 2011. Effects of heating media and operating conditions on drying kinetics and quality of germinated brown rice. Journal of Food Engineering 107 (3-4):385–92. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.06.030.
  • Sungsopha, J., A. Moongngarm, and R. Kanesakoo. 2009. Application of germination and enzymatic treatment to improve the concentration of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of rice bran. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 3 (3653):3661.
  • Sutharut, J., and J. Sudarat. 2012. Total anthocyanin content and antioxidant activity of germinated colored rice. International Food Research Journal 19 (1):215–21.
  • Taechapairoj, C., and K. Kaewyot. 2020. Effects of hot-air fluidized-bed drying on cooking quality, antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds in germinated brown rice. Science, Engineering and Health Studies 14 (1):62–72.
  • Tang, S., N. S. Hettiarachchy, R. Horax, and S. Eswaranandam. 2003. Physicochemical properties and functionality of rice bran protein hydrolyzate prepared from heat-stabilized defatted rice bran with the aid of enzymes. Journal of Food Science 68 (1):152–7. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb14132.x.
  • Techo, J., S. Soponronnarit, S. Devahastin, L. S. Wattanasiritham, R. Thuwapanichayanan, and S. Prachayawarakorn. 2019. Effects of heating method and temperature in combination with hypoxic treatment on g-aminobutyric acid, phenolics content and antioxidant activity of germinated rice. International Journal of Food Science & Technology 54 (4):1330–41. doi: 10.1111/ijfs.14021.
  • Ti, H., R. Zhang, M. Zhang, Q. Li, Z. Wei, Y. Zhang, X. Tang, Y. Deng, L. Liu, and Y. Ma. 2014. Dynamic changes in the free and bound phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of brown rice at different germination stages. Food Chemistry 161:337–44. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.04.024.
  • Tian, S., K. Nakamura, and H. Kayahara. 2004. Analysis of phenolic compounds in white rice, brown rice, and germinated brown rice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52 (15):4808–13. doi: 10.1021/jf049446f.
  • Tortayeva, D. D., R. Horax, S. Eswaranandam, A. Jha, and N. Hettiarahhy. 2014. Effects of germination on nutrient composition of long grain rice and its protein physico-chemical and functional properties. Journal of Food and Nutrition 1 (201):1–9.
  • Toyoizumi, T., T. Kosugi, Y. Toyama, and T. Nakajima. 2021. Effects of high-temperature cooking on the gamma-aminobutyric acid content and antioxidant capacity of germinated brown rice (Oryza sativa L.). CyTA - Journal of Food 19 (1):360–9. doi: 10.1080/19476337.2021.1905721.
  • Trevino, S. R., J. M. Scholtz, and C. N. Pace. 2007. Amino acid contribution to protein solubility: Asp, Glu, and Ser contribute more favorably than the other hydrophilic amino acids in RNase Sa. Journal of Molecular Biology 366 (2):449–60. doi: 10.1016/j.jmb.2006.10.026.
  • Ukpong, E. S., E. U. Onyeka, G. C. Omeire, and C. Ogueke. 2021. Farro 57 rice cultivar: A comparative study of the nutritional composition of its parboiled milled rice, brown rice and germinated brown rice. Asian Food Science Journal 20:52–60. doi: 10.9734/afsj/2021/v20i330278.
  • Uraipong, C., and J. Zhao. 2016. Rice bran protein hydrolysates exhibit strong in vitro a-amylase, b-glucosidase and ACE-inhibition activities. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 96 (4):1101–10. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.7182.
  • USDA. 2020. Crop Values 2019 Summary (February 2020): United States Department of Agriculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service. United States Department of Agriculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service. https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Todays_Reports/reports/cpvl0220.pdf.
  • USDA. 2021a. Acreage (June 2021): United States Department of Agriculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service. June 30, 2021. https://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Todays_Reports/reports/acrg0621.pdf.
  • USDA. 2021b. World Agricultural Production: USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Circular Series, WAP 11-21, November 9, 2021. 41 pp. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/production.pdf. 9-11-2021b.
  • Valdes, A. M., J. Walter, E. Segal, and T. D. Spector. 2018. Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.) 361 (Supp1. k2179):k2179–44. doi: 10.1136/bmj.k2179.
  • van der Kamp, J. W., K. Poutanen, C. J. Seal, and D. P. Richardson. 2014. The HEALTHGRAIN definition of ‘whole grain’. Food & Nutrition Research 58 (1):22100. doi: 10.3402/fnr.v58.22100.
  • van der Maarel, M., B. van der Veen, J. C. M. Uitdehaag, H. Leemhuis, and L. Dijkhuizen. 2002. Properties and applications of starch-converting enzymes of the α-amylase family. Journal of Biotechnology. 94 (2):137–55. doi: 10.1016/S0168-1656(01)00407-2.
  • VELUPPILLAI, S., K. NITHYANANTHARAJAH, S. VASANTHARUBA, S. Balakumar, and V. ARASARATNAM. 2009. Biochemical changes associated with germinating rice grains and germination improvement. Rice Science 16 (3):240–2. doi: 10.1016/S1672-6308(08)60085-2.
  • Venn, B. J., and J. I. Mann. 2004. Cereal grains, legumes and diabetes. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58 (11):1443–61. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601995.
  • Viuda-Martos, M., M. C. Lopez-Marcos, J. Fernandez-Lopez, E. Sendra, J. H. Lopez-Vargas, and J. A. Perez-Alvarez. 2010. Role of fiber in cardiovascular diseases: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 9 (2):240–58. doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00102.x.
  • Wan, J., Y. Wu, Q. Pham, R. W. Li, L. Yu, M. H. Chen, S. M. Boue, W. Yokoyama, B. Li, and T. T. Y. Wang. 2021. Effects of Differences in Resistant Starch Content of Rice on Intestinal Microbial Composition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 69 (28):8017–27. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c07887.
  • Wan, J., Y. Wu, Q. Pham, L. Yu, M. H. Chen, S. M. Boue, W. Yokoyama, B. Li, and T. T. Y. Wang. 2020. Effects of rice with different amounts of resistant starch on mice fed a high-fat diet: Attenuation of adipose weight gain. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 68 (46):13046–55. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b05505.
  • Wang, C., D. Li, F. Xu, T. Hao, and M. Zhang. 2014. Comparison of two methods for the extraction of fractionated rice bran protein. Journal of Chemistry (Hindawi) 2014:546345.
  • Wang, M., N. S. Hettiarachchy, M. Qi, W. Burks, and T. Siebenmorgen. 1999. Preparation and functional properties of rice bran protein isolate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47 (2):411–6. doi: 10.1021/jf9806964.
  • Wells, G. A. B. J. Shea, D. O’Connell, J. Peterson, V. Welch, M. Losos, and P. Tugwel. 2021. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. Accessed September 1, 2021. http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp.
  • Weng, X., M. Sun, H. Goa, H. Liu, J. Huang, and X. Liao. 2019. Germinated brown rice, a whole grain with health benefits. Nutrition and Food Science Journal 2 (1):119.
  • Wu, F., H. Chen, N. Yang, X. Duan, Z. Jin, and X. Xu. 2013a. Germinated brown rice enhances antioxidant activities and immune functions in aged mice. Cereal Chemistry Journal 90 (6):601–7. doi: 10.1094/CCHEM-02-13-0039-R.
  • Wu, F., N. Yang, A. Toure, Z. Jin, and X. Xu. 2013b. Germinated brown rice and its role in human health. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 53 (5):451–63. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2010.542259.
  • Wu, L., M. Zhai, Y. Yao, C. Dong, S. Shuang, and G. Ren. 2013c. Changes in nutritional constituents, anthocyanins, and volatile compounds during the processing of black rice tea. Food Science and Biotechnology 22 (4):917–23. doi: 10.1007/s10068-013-0164-z.
  • Wunthunyarat, W., H. S. Seo, and Y. J. Wang. 2020. Effects of germination conditions on enzyme activities and starch hydrolysis of long-grain brown rice in relation to flour properties and bread qualities. Journal of Food Science 85 (2):349–57. doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.15008.
  • Xia, Q., L. Wang, C. Xu, J. Mei, and Y. Li. 2017. Effects of germination and high hydrostatic pressure processing on mineral elements, amino acids and antioxidants in vitro bioaccessibility, as well as starch digestibility in brown rice (Oryza sativa L.). Food Chemistry 214:533–42. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.114.
  • Xia, Q., and Y. Li. 2018. Mild high hydrostatic pressure pretreatments applied before soaking process to modulate wholegrain brown rice germination: An examination on embryo growth and physicochemical properties. Food Research International (Ottawa, Ont.) 106:817–24. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2018.01.052.
  • Xia, Q., L. Wang, and Y. Li. 2018. Exploring high hydrostatic pressure-mediated germination to enhance functionality and quality attributes of wholegrain brown rice. Food Chemistry 249:104–10. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.01.007.
  • Xiao, Z., G. E. Lester, Y. Luo, and Q. Wang. 2012. Assessment of vitamin and carotenoid concentrations of emerging food products: Edible microgreens. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (31):7644–51. doi: 10.1021/jf300459b.
  • Xu, J., H. Zhang, X. Guo, and H. Qian. 2012. The impact of germination on the characteristics of brown rice flour and starch. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 92 (2):380–7. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.4588.
  • Xu, Z., and J. S. Godber. 2001. Antioxidant activities of major components of g-oryzanol from rice bran using a linoleic acid model. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 78 (6):645–9. doi: 10.1007/s11746-001-0320-1.
  • Xu, Z., and J. S. Godber. 1999. Purification and identification of components of g-oryzanol in rice bran oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47 (7):2724–8. doi: 10.1021/jf981175j.
  • Xu, Z., N. Hua, and J. S. Godber. 2001. Antioxidant activity of tocopherols, tocotrienols, and g-oryzanol components from rice bran against cholesterol oxidation accelerated by 2,2-Azobis(2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49 (4):2077–81. doi: 10.1021/jf0012852.
  • Yamagata, H., T. Sugimoto, K. Tanaka, and Z. Kasai. 1982. Biosynthesis of storage proteins in developing rice seeds. Plant Physiology 70 (4):1094–100. doi: 10.1104/pp.70.4.1094.
  • Yamuangmorn, S., B. Dell, and C. Prom-u-Thai. 2020. Anthocyanin and phenolic acid profiles in purple, red and non-pigmented rice during germination. Chiang Mai University Journal of Natural Sciences 19 (4):865–78. doi: 10.12982/CMUJNS.2020.0054.
  • Yang, F., T. K. B. Basu, and B. Ooraikul. 2001. Studies on germination conditions and antioxidant contents of wheat grain. International Journal of Food Science & Nutrition 52 (4):319–30.
  • Yang, R., Y. Sun, and Z. Gu. 2018. Zinc accumulation and distribution in germinated brown rice. Food Science and Technology Research 24 (3):369–76. doi: 10.3136/fstr.24.369.
  • Yang, T., W. Yang, I. Wang, Y. Zeng, G. Wen, J. Du, S. Yang, and X. Pu. 2015. Genetic analysis of g-aminobutyric acid and resistant starch of brown rice and germinated brown rice in 02428 × hexi 35 RILs population. Journal of Plant Genetic Resources 16 (1):205–9.
  • Yang, X., K. O. Darko, Y. Huang, C. He, H. Yang, S. He, J. Li, J. Li, B. Hocher, and Y. Yin. 2017. Resistant starch regulates gut microbiota: Structure, biochemistry and cell signalling. Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry : international Journal of Experimental Cellular Physiology, Biochemistry, and Pharmacology 42 (1):306–18. doi: 10.1159/000477386.
  • Yao, S., T. W. Yang, L. J. Zhao, and S. B. Xiong. 2008. The variation of g-aminobutyric acid content in germinated brown rice among different cultivars. Scientia Agricultura Sinica 41 (12):3974–82.
  • Yasukawa, K., T. Akihisa, Y. Kimura, T. Tamura, and M. Takido. 1998. Inhibitory effect of cycloartenol ferulate, a component of rice bran, on tumor promotion in two-stage carcinogenesis in mouse skin. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 21 (10):1072–6. doi: 10.1248/bpb.21.1072.
  • Ye, L., S. Zhou, L. Liu, L. Liu, D. L. E. Waters, K. Zhong, X. Zhou, X. Ma, and X. Liu. 2016. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of brown rice in China. International Journal of Food Engineering 12 (6):537–46. doi: 10.1515/ijfe-2015-0346.
  • Yodpitak, S., S. Mahatheeranont, D. Boonyawan, P. Sookwong, S. Roytrakul, and O. Norkaew. 2019. Cold plasma treatment to improve germination and enhance the bioactive phytochemical content of germinated brown rice. Food Chemistry 289:328–39. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.03.061.
  • You, S. Y., S. G. Oh, H. M. Han, W. Jun, Y. S. Hong, and H. J. Chung. 2016. Impact of germination on the structures and in vitro digestibility of starch from waxy brown rice. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 82:863–70. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.11.023.
  • Zargarchi, S., and S. Saremnezhad. 2019. Gamma-aminobutyric acid, phenolics and antioxidant capacity of germinated indica paddy rice as affected by low-pressure plasma treatment. LWT 102:291–4. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.12.014.
  • Zhang, M. W., R. F. Zhang, F. X. Zhang, and R. H. Liu. 2010. Phenolic profiles and antioxidant activity of black rice bran of different commercially available varieties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58 (13):7580–7. doi: 10.1021/jf1007665.
  • Zhang, Q., N. Liu, S. S. Wang, and L. Q. Pan. 2020. Effects of germination and aeration treatment following segmented moisture conditioning on the g-aminobutyric acid accumulation in germinated brown rice. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering 13 (5):234–40. doi: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20201305.5538.
  • Zhang, Q., J. Xiang, L. Zhang, X. Zhu, J. Evers, W. van der Werf, and L. Duan. 2014. Optimizing soaking and germination conditions to improve gamma-aminobutyric acid content in japonica and indica germinated brown rice. Journal of Functional Foods 10:283–91. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2014.06.009.
  • Zhao, G. C., M. X. Xie, Y. C. Wang, and J. Y. Li. 2017. Molecular mechanisms underlying g-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) accumulation in giant embryo rice seeds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 65 (24):4883–9. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b00013.
  • Zhao, S. J. Ding, and S. Xiong. 2019. Development of gamma-aminobutyric acid-enriched germinated rice products. In Sprouted grains, eds. H. Feng, B. Nemzer, and J. W. DeVries, 175–90. Washington, DC: AACC International Press.
  • Zheng, Y. M., R. G. He, X. Huang, L. Zheng, and P. Hua. 2006. Effects of germination on composition of carbohydrate and activity of relevant enzymes in different varieties of brown rice. Cereal & Feed Industry 5:1–3.
  • Zheng, Y. M., Q. Li, and H. Ping. 2007. Effects of germination on protein and amino acid composition in brown rice. Journal of the Chinese Cereals and Oils Association 22:7–11.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.